A  BRIEF  OUTLINE  OF 
CHURCH  HISTORY 

Including  the  Reformed  Church  in  the  V.  S. 


BY 

REV.  THEODORE  P.  BOLLIGER,  D.  D. 


BX 

9565 
.B65 


fBLICATION    AND    SUNDAY  SCHOOL  BOARD  OF  THE 

U  Reformed  Church 


SCHAFF  BUILDING  FIFTEENTH  AND  RACE  STS.,  PHILA.,  PA. 


Library  of  the  Theological  Seminary 

PRINCETON  •       NEW  JERSEY 


Presented  by 

Dr.  Earl  A.  Pope 
Manson  Professor  of  Bible 

Lafayette  College 
The  Earl  A.  Pope  Collection 


BX9565  .B65 
Bolliger,  Theodore  P. 
Brief  outline  of  church  histi 
ry  : 


A  BRIEF  OUTLINE  OF 
CHURCH  HISTORY 

Including  the  Reformed  Church  in  the  U.  S. 


BY 


REV.  THEODORE  P.  BOLLIGER,  D.  D. 


LIBRARY  OF  PRINCETON 


UAY  30  2002 


THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY 


Publication  and  Sunday  School  Board  of  the 
Reformed  Church 


SCHAFF  BUILDING  FIFTEENTH  AND  RACE  STS.,  PHILA.,  PA. 


•  ^    J 

i 

TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

Lesson  Page 

ANCIENT  CHRISTIANITY 

I.  The  Beginnings  of  the  Christian  Church 1 

II.  From  Constantine  the  Great  to  Gregory  the  Great..       8 

MEDIEVAL  CHRISTIANITY 

III.  First  Period — The  Missionary  Age. 

From  Gregory  the  Great  to  Gregory  VII 15 

IV.  Second  Period — The  Papal  Age. 

From  Gregory  VII  to  Boniface  VIII 21 

V.     Third  Period — The  Pre-Reformation  Age. 

From  Boniface  VIII  to  the  Reformation 27 

MODERN    CHRISTIANITY 

VI.     The  Reformation  in  Switzerland  and  Germany 33 

VII.  The  Reformed  Church  in  Germany  and  other  Lands.     41 

THE   REFORMED  CHURCH    IN  THE   UNITED  STATES 

VIII.  From    the    earliest    immigration    to    the    Independ- 

ence of  the  Coetus 47 

IX.  Progress  Through  Difficulties 54 

X.     Progress      Through      Controversies      and      Progress 

Through  Co-operation 59 


ANCIENT  CHRISTIANITY 
LESSON    I 

First  Period.     The  Begixnings  of  the  Christian  Church. 

4  B.  C.  to  312  A.  D.     The  Birth  of  Christ  to  Con- 

stantine.  the  First  Christian  Emperor. 

Christ  came  into  the  world  to  do  two  things:  first,  to  complete 
the  work  of  redemption  and  to  offer  righteous- 
ness and  salvation  freely  to  all;  secondly,  to 
establish  a  church  and  give  it  authority  and 
power  to  conquer  the  world.  The  work  of  re- 
demption is  revealed  to  us  in  the  Bible,  the 
conquests  of  the  Church  in  Church  History. 
A  well-informed  Christian  should  know  both. 

Church  History  is  divided  into  three  great  epochs.  Ancient 
Christianity,  4  B.  C.  to  590  A.  D.,  dealing  with  the  early  Christian 
Church;  from  the  Birth  of  Christ  to  Gregory  the  Great.  IVledieval 
Christianity,  590-1517,  unfolding  the  Glory  and  Decline  of  the 
Papacy;  from  Gregory  the  Great  to  the  Reformation.  Modern 
Christianity,  1517  to  the  present,  presenting  the  Rise  of  Protes- 
tantism and  the  Multiplication  of  Denominations  and  Sects;  from 
the  Reformation  to  the  Present  Time. 

I.     THE  APOSTOLIC  AGE  covers  the  first  century. 

1.  The  Infallible  Rule.  The  Word  of  God,  the  life  of  Christ 
and  the  History  of  the  Apostolic  Church  furnish  the  "Infallible 
Rule"  by  which  all  later  developments  in  doctrine,  worship,  and 
church  government  must  be  measured. 

2.  Extension.  The  apostles  obeyed  the  command  of  Christ: 
"Ye  shall  be  my  witnesses,  both  in  Jerusalem  and  in  all  Judea 
and  Samaria,  and  unto  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  earth."  The 
gospel  was  spread  by  extensive  missionary  journeys  of  the  apos- 
tles, by  the  travels  and  business  trips  of  believers,  and  by  dis- 
persions caused  by  persecutions.    At  the  end  of  the  first  century. 


2  Outline  Studies  on  the  Church. 

Christian  congregations  were  found  in  all  parts  of  the  Roman 
Empire. 

3.  Life,  Worship  and  Organization.  Brotherly  love  was  the 
distinguishing  trait  of  the  first  century  church.  The  forms  of 
worship  were  very  simple  and  informal.  Hymns  and  prayers, 
scripture  reading  and  exposition,  the  use  of  the  Sacraments  and 
personal  testimony  were  the  main  features.  The  Lord's  supper 
and  Baptism  were  the  only  sacraments  observed. 

Fundamental  convictions  were:  belief  in  the  deity  of  Christ, 
His  resurrection,  His  power  to  forgive  sin,  salvation  through 
faith  alone,  and  the  necessity  of  a  godly,  self-sacrificing  life. 

Elders  or  bishops,  and  deacons  were  the  only  congregational 
officials.  The  terms  "elders"  and  "bishops"  were  used  inter- 
changeably for  the  same  office.  Compare  Acts  20:17,28  and 
Titus  1:5,7. 

II.     THE  AGE  OF  PERSECUTIONS  extends  to  311,  the  end  of 

the  first  period. 

1.  The  Persecutions.  The  Lord  foretold  that  persecutions 
would  come.  The  Jews  and  the  Heathen  both  raged  against  the 
growing  church.  The  sword  and  brute  force  were  arrayed 
against  divine  truth  and  moral  grandeur.  It  was  a  struggle  to 
the  death.     The  Church  triumphed. 

There  were  innumerable  local  and  provincial  persecutions. 
Only  two,  under  Decius  Trajan  (249-251),  and  Diocletian  (303-311) 
spread  over  the  entire  empire,  although  it  has  been  customary 
to  speak  of  ten  great  persecutions.  During  this  entire  period, 
Christianity  was  an  illegal  and  forbidden  religion. 

The  first  persecution  under  the  emperor  Nero  (65-68)  while 
confined  mainly  to  Rome  was  a  prophecy  of  all  the  others.  A 
great  fire  raging  ten  days  had  destroyed  one-half  of  Rome.  The 
rumor  spread  in  the  city,  that  Nero  himself  in  order  to  rebuild 
Rome  with  greater  magnificence,  had  caused  the  conflagration. 
(This  rumor  was  probably  correct.)  To  divert  the  anger  of  the 
populace,  the  emperor  charged  the  Christians  with  the  crime. 
A  terrible  persecution  arose.  Christians  were  sewed  into  the 
skins  of  wild  animals  and  thrown  to  half  famished  dogs,  or 
wrapped  in  pitch  and  rags  and  burned  as  torches,  or  nailed  to 
crosses,  or  served  as  targets  for  the  arrows  and  spears  of  glad- 


Church  History.  3 

iators.  The  apostle  Paul,  and  probably  Peter  also,  were  among 
the  martyrs. 

For  two  centuries  persecutions  raged  at  intervals.  Golden 
deeds  of  religious  heroism  occurred.  In  155,  Polycarp,  bishop  of 
Smyrna,  scorned  to  deny  his  Master,  saying  "Eighty-six  years 
have  I  served  Christ  and  He  never  wronged  me;  how  can  I  now 
speak  evil  of  my  King  and  Savior"?     He  was  burned  at  the  stake. 

The  climax  was  reached  in  the  days  of  Diocletian  (303-311). 
The  persecutions  extended  over  the  entire  empire.  "All  the 
pains  which  iron  and  steel,  fire  and  sword,  rack  and  cross,  wild 
beast  and  beastly  men  could  inflict,  were  employed."  After  the 
abdication  of  Diocletian  (305)  his  co-regent,  Galerius,  continued 
the  persecution  with  renewed  fury  for  six  years.  A  hideous, 
nameless  disease  then  laid  the  emperor  low.  In  his  agony,  he 
issued  the  first  edict  of  toleration,  granting  to  Christians  the 
right  to  erect  churches  and  to  worship  publicly,  and  asking  the 
prayers  of  the  Christians  for  the  emperors  and  the  state.  This 
ended  the  age  of  persecutions. 

2.  Extension  of  the  Church.  In  spite  of  persecutions,  the 
church  had  grown  marvelously.  The  blood  of  the  martyrs  was 
the  seed  of  the  church.  There  were  no  great  missionaries.  It 
was  not  necessary.  Every  Christian  was  a  missionary.  By  per- 
sonal work  and  direct  testimony  converts  were  won. 

The  Scriptures  were  translated  from  the  Greek  and  Hebrew 
into  the  Latin,  Syriac  and  three  dialects  of  the  Egyptian. 
Churches  abounded  from  India  and  Arabia  to  Spain,  and  from 
the  desert  of  Sahara  to  the  British  Isles. 

3.  Doctrinal  Controversies.  The  church  from  the  beginning 
had  to  contend  with  heresies,  coming  both  from  within  and  with- 
out. The  most  important  of  these  were  Ebionism,  Gnosticism, 
and  Neo-Platonism. 

(a)  Ebionism.  The  name  comes  from  a  Hebrew  word  mean- 
ing "poor,"  and  was  probably  first  given  in  reproach.  Ebionism 
was  a  Jewish  form  of  Christianity.  The  supernatural  birth  and 
the  deity  of  Christ  were  denied.  The  Gospel  was  considered 
simply  as  a  new  and  higher  "law."  Circumcision  and  the  entire 
Old  Testament  ritual  were  declared  necessary  to  salvation. 
Remnants  of  this  heresy  persisted  until  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century. 


4  OuTLixE  Studies  ox  the  Church. 

(b)  Gnosticism.  (Fi'om  the  Greek  "gnosis" — knowledge.) 
Gnosticism  was  a  pagan  form  of  Christianity.  It  was  a  com- 
pound of  various  heathen  philosophies  and  a  defective  Chris- 
tianity. The  Gnostics  claimed  possession  of  a  higher  knowledge 
(gnosis)  than  that  possessed  by  the  ordinary  Christians.  Be- 
tween the  supreme  God  and  the  world,  a  long  series  of  lesser 
divinities  called  "aeons"  was  conceived.  Each  successive  aeon 
was  a  little  lower  in  dignity,  power,  and  divinity  than  the  next 
above.  Christ  was  the  chief  and  most  perfect  of  the  aeons. 
The  lowest  aeon,  that  is,  the  one  farthest  removed  from  the 
supreme  God,  was  the  creator  of  matter  and  the  world,  for  the 
supreme  God  could  not  have  created  matter,  because  matter  is 
evil  in  itself.  Christ  did  not  possess  real  humanity.  The  divine 
Christ  simply  assumed  the  form  of  the  human  Jesus  at  baptism 
and  left  it  again  just  before  his  suffering.  Redemption  con- 
sisted in  freeing  the  soul  from  contact  with  matter.  Some 
Gnostic  sects  practiced  the  strictest  asceticism,  others  fell  into 
the  grossest  self-indulgence  in  their  efforts  to  be  freed  from  the 
shackles  of  "matter."     This  heresy  lived  for  about  five  centuries. 

(c)  Neo-Platonism  (from  the  Greek  "neos" — new;  Plato,  a 
famous  Greek  philosopher.)  In  Neo-Platonism,  heathenism  made 
its  last  desperate  effort  to  re-establish  itself.  By  the  end  of  the 
second  century,  heathen  philosophies  and  religions  were  fast  dy- 
ing, while  Christian  ideas  had  permeated  everywhere.  Neo- 
Platonism  gathered  to  itself  all  that  was  best  in  the  heathen 
philosophies,  religions,  and  ideals.  Many  Christian  ideas  were 
also  incorporated.  In  this  way  a  new  universal  religion  that 
could  satisfy  heart  and  mind  was  to  be  formed.  The  effort  was 
vain.  By  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  the  movement  was 
dead. 

During  this  age  of  persecutions  and  doctrinal  controversies, 
a  host  of  Christian  writers  arose  to  defend  the  church  against 
the  threefold  charge  of  atheism,  treason,  and  immorality,  and  to 
set  forth  its  actual  teachings.  Among  these  great  defenders 
were  Justin  Martyr,  Irenaeus,  Origin,  TertuUian  and  Cyprian. 

4.  Life  and  Worship.  During  the  persecutions,  the  Chris- 
tians' best  defence  was  a  clean  life  and  a  blameless  character. 
Even  the  heathen  have  left  us  their  favorable  testimony.  Galen, 
the  physician,  testifies  that  they  "kept  themselves  from  carnal 


Church  History.  5 

pleasures."  Lucian,  the  satyrist,  is  amazed  at  their  "incredible 
eagerness  to  help  each  other  in  want."  Others  declared,  "Behold, 
how  they  love  one  another." 

The  first  divine  services  were  held  in  private  houses  and 
secret  places.  Not  till  the  third  century  could  churches  in 
large  numbers  be  built.  The  Lord's  Day,  or  Sunday,  early  dis- 
placed the  Jewish  Sabbath.  Two  great  festival  Sundays  slowly 
emerged,  Easter  and  Pentecost.  The  services  gradually  became 
more  elaborate.  Special  set  prayers,  liturgical  forms  and  brief 
creeds  enriched  the  earlier  simplicity.  The  Lord's  Supper  be- 
came so  sacred  a  rite  that  only  those  baptized  and  in  full  mem- 
bership in  the  church  might  witness  it.  Infants  as  well  as  adults 
were  baptized  from  the  beginning.  A  peculiar  heavenly  grace 
was  believed  to  be  imparted  by  baptism."  Catechetical  instruc- 
tion was  the  universal  rule.  After  confession  of  their  faith,  cate- 
chumens were  received  into  the  church  by  confirmation. 

5.  Organization.  Elders  or  bishops  and  deacons  were  the 
only  church  officers  in  the  apostolic  age.  The  elder-bishops  had 
charge  of  the  services  and  spiritual  affairs  of  the  congregation, 
the  deacons  of  the  benevolences.  In  the  course  of  time  the  elder 
especially  gifted  was  entrusted  with  larger  duties,  such  as  preach- 
ing, the  care  of  the  sacraments  and  presiding  at  congregational 
meetings.  This  elder  thus  virtually  became  the  "pastor"  or  shep- 
herd. Towards  the  end  of  this  period  the  distinction  between 
the  pastor  or  bishop,  and  the  other  elders  had  become  very 
marked.  The  pastor  was  ordained  to  his  office,  gave  his  entire 
time  to  the  congregation  and  was  supported  by  the  contributions 
of  the  membership.  The  term  "bishop"  was  no  longer  applied 
to  all  the  elders,  but  only  to  the  "pastor." 

At  first  all  bishops  were  of  equal  authority.  As  time  passed 
they  fell  into  different  ranks  according  to  the  importance  of  their 
particular  parish.  Thus  there  were  country  bishops,  city  bishops 
and  metropolitan  (capital  city)  bishops.  Each  rank  had  its  own 
measure  of  authority.  The  congregations  were  at  first  only 
loosely  connected,  but  by  the  end  of  the  third  century  were 
united  in  a  magnificent  organization,  closely  welded  together. 
The  Christian  Church  in  a  sense  formed  a  vast,  secret  society 
within  the  empire,  with  pass  words,  and  signs  and  symbols 
known  only  to  the  believers.     In  this  way  alone  could  the  Church 


6  Outline  Studies  on  the  Church. 

have  been  preserved  amid  the  successive  shocks  of  the  great 
persecutions. 

TEST  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  was  the  twofold  purpose  of  Christ's  coming? 

2.  How  are  the  three  great  epochs  distinguished? 

3.  What  is  the  "infallible  rule"  for  measuring  all  ages  of  Church 

history? 

4.  How  was  Christianity  spread  in  the  Apostolic  Age? 

5.  What  three  persecutions  are  named? 

6.  What  were  some  of  the  tortures  inflicted? 

7.  Into  what  languages  was  the  Bible  translated? 

8.  What  was  Ebionism? 

9.  What  was  Gnosticism? 

10.  What  was  Neo-Platonism? 

11.  What  testimony  did  the  heathen  give  as  to  the  life  of  Chris- 

tians? 

12.  By  what  stages  did  the  office  of  "pastor"  emerge? 

SUGGESTED  TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  INVESIGATION 

1.  The  boundaries  of  the  Roman  Empire  during  this  period. 

2.  The  office  of  "Elder  or  Bishop"  and  "Deacon"  in  the  N.  T. 

3.  The  persecution  under  Decius  Trajan. 

4.  Heroic  examples  of  martyrdom. 

5.  Some  facts  about  Irenaeus,  Origin,  Tertullian,  Cyprian. 

6.  "Quo  Vadis,"  by  Henryk  Sienkiewicz,  gives  a  dramatic   ac- 

count  of   the   Neronion   persecution.     Should   be   read   if 
possible. 

BOOKS  FOR  REFERENCE 

Cowan:  "Landmarks  of  Church  History."  188  pp.  Very  useful 
manual. 

Fisher:  "History  of  the  Christian  Church."  729  pp.  The  best 
one  volume  Church  History. 

Schaff:  "History  of  the  Christian  Church."  Eight  large  vol- 
umes.    Invaluable  for  reference. 

The  New  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia.     Especially  fine. 


Church  History.  7 

Where  the  above  books  cannot  be  consulted,  any  good  ency- 
clopedia or  work  on  Church  History  will  prove  valuable.  For 
special  study  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  the  United  States, 
consult: 

J.  M.  Dubbs:  "Historic  Manual  of  the  Reformed  Church."  "His- 
tory of  the  Reformed  Church,  German." 

J.  I.  Good:  "Origin  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  Germany." 
"History  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  the  U.  S."  (1725-1792.) 
"History  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  the  19th  Century." 

H.  J.  Ruetenik:     "Pioneers  of  the  Reformed  Church." 


8  Outline  Studiks  ox  tiii-;  CHiRtH. 

LESSON  II 

Second  Period.     311-590.     Constantine  the  Great 
TO   Grfgory   the   Great. 

GENERAL  CHURCH  COUNCILS  AND  GREAT  MIGRATIONS 

The  chief  events  of  this  period  are  the  enthroning  of  Christianity 
as  the  state  religion;  the  mighty  migrations  of 
German  tribes;  the  statement  of  fundamental 
Christian  doctrines  by  the  councils;  and  the 
deterioration  of  the  spiritual  life  in  the  church. 

I.     HISTORICAL   SKETCH    OF    POLITICAL    EVENTS. 

(a)  The  United  Empire.  In  312,  several  rival  emperors 
struggled  for  the  throne.  Constantine  was  one  of  these.  Though 
still  a  heathen,  he  had  always  treated  Christianity  with  marked 
respect.  As  the  result  of  a  vision,  or  a  dream,  in  which  he  saw 
a  cross  with  the  words,  "In  this  conquer."  Constantine  chose 
the  cross  as  his  imperial  emblem,  had  it  stamped  upon  the 
shields  of  his  soldiers  and  openly  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
Christians.  He  defeated  all  his  rivals,  became  sole  emperor, 
and  established  his  new  capitol  at  Constantinople.  Special  privi- 
leges were  granted  the  Christians,  the  church  was  signally  fa- 
vored and  heathen  worship  was  restricted.  Within  twelve  years, 
Christianity  had  become  the  state  religion,  and  heathenism 
steadily  declined. 

The  successors  of  Constantine  were  all  Christians,  with  the 
exception  of  Julian,  known  as  the  Apostate,  who  fell  back  to 
paganism  and  tried  to  restore  heathen  worship.  It  was  a  vain 
attempt.  Julian  reinstated  the  worship  of  the  heathen  divinities 
at  public  expense,  restored  the  former  privileges  to  the  heathen 
priests  and  caused  whole  flocks  and  herds  to  be  sacrificed.  At 
Antioch,  he  vainly  tried  to  restore  the  worship  of  Apollo 
Daphneus,  but  after  a  magnificent  procession  only  one  solitary 
old  man  brought  a  sacrifice  and  he  offered  a  goose.  Julian  died 
after  reigning  two  years   (361-363).     Theodosius  the  Great  (395) 


Church  History.  9 

forbade  all  public  heathen  worship  with  a  heavy  fine  and  also 
even  private  pagan  rites.  At  his  death  the  empire  divided  and 
was  never  again  united  under  one  head.  The  two  capitals  were 
Constantinople  and  Rome. 

(b)  The  Eastern  Empire.  Heathenism  rapidly  waned.  Pagan 
schools  and  temples  were  suppressed.  The  Christian  Church 
was  exalted.  The  climax  was  reached  under  Justinian  (Em- 
peror from  527-565),  who  prohibited  all  heathen  worship  on  pain 
of  death  and  ordered  all  his  subjects  to  become  Christians.  The 
codification  of  Roman  laws,  made  by  a  committee  of  able  lawyers 
at  the  direction  of  Justinian,  is  justly  famous,  and  lies  at  the 
foundation  of  most  modern  civil  codes. 

(c)  The  Western  Empire.  Mighty  migrations  of  central  and 
eastern  European  tribes  took  place  during  the  fourth  and  fifth 
centuries.  The  tribes  along  the  boundary  of  the  empire  had 
been  won  to  a  nominal  Christianity.  Especially  noteworthy  was 
the  work  of 

Ulfiias  (383),  missionary  bishop  among  the  West  Goths.  He 
gave  them  a  written  language  and  an  almost  complete  translation 
of  the  Bible.  This  translation  is  the  earliest  literary  work  pro- 
duced in  any  Teutonic  language.  In  the_ fifth  century  successive 
hordes  of  these  barbarians  overran  and  devastated  Italy.  Aiaric, 
King  of  the  West  Goths,  captured  Rome  in  410,  but  spared  the 
Christians  and  the  churches.  Paganism  however  was  ruthlessly 
destroyed.  In  4.52,  Attila,  King  of  the  Huns,  a  Tartar  tribe,  again 
overran  Italy,  though  Rome  was  spared  through  the  fearless  in- 
tervention of  its  bishop,  Leo  I.  Three  years  later,  Genseric, 
King  of  the  Vandals,  a  German  tribe,  mercilessly  pillaged  Rome. 
A  generation  later  Odoacer,  leader  of  various  German  tribes 
again  captured  Rome  and  made  himself  king.     (476.) 

A  century  later  (576),  the  Lombards,  another  German  tribe, 
captured  all  of  northern  Italy  and  finally  settled  in  the  valley 
of  the  Po.  These  various  invading  tribes  were  all  gradually 
christianized,  civilized  and  absorbed  by  the  previous  inhabitants; 
though  each  left  its  own  influence  upon  the  laws,  customs  and 
the  language  of  Italy. 

II.     POSITION  OF  THE  CHURCH   DURING  THIS  PERIOD. 

(a)      Life    of    the    Church.     After    Constantine's    conversion, 


10  Outline  Studies  ox  the  Church. 

special  privileges  were  at  once  conferred  upon  the  Church.  The 
clergy  were  exempted  from  military  duty;  the  subjects  were 
exhorted  to  become  Christians;  heathen  temples  were  trans- 
formed into  churches;  churches  and  clergy  were  liberally  sup- 
ported; and  by  325  Christianity  had  become  the  state  religion. 
Later  emperors  conferred  still  greater  privileges.  The  natural 
result  was  "the  entrance  of  careless  multitudes  into  the  church's 
membership,  of  ambitious  courtiers  into  its  ministry  and  of  pagan 
usages  and  ideals  into  its  life." 

The  spiritual  life  rapidly  deteriorated.  As  a  substitute  for 
spirituality,  churches  and  church  services  were  made  very  gor- 
geous. Images  and  relics  of  saints  and  martyrs  became  objects 
of  devotion.  Prayers  began  to  be  addressed  to  saints  and  es- 
pecially the  Virgin  Mary.  Liturgical  forms  became  fixed  and 
the  services  stereotyped.  The  sermon  was  widely  regarded  as 
an  oratorical  performance  to  be  9,pplauded.  The  sacraments 
were  invested  with  magical  and  superstitious  power.  The  lack 
of  spiritual  life  was  hidden  by  the  multiplication  of  outward 
observances. 

Two  new  festivals  were  also  introduced,  Epiphany  and 
Christmas. 

(b)  Reaction  from  Worldliness.  Pious  souls,  longing  for  es- 
cape from  the  inrushing  worldliness  and  barbarism,  thought  to 
find  the  higher,  religious  life  by  fleeing  from  the  world  into  the 
desert  and  solitary  places.  Thus  began  the  movement  toward 
monasticism.  It  arose  in  the  languid  climate  of  Egypt  where 
physical  needs  were  few.  Three  names  should  be  noted.  Anthony 
(356),  the  typical  hermit,  living  in  desert  solitude  for  fifty  years, 
engaged  in  fastings  and  prayers.  His  example  led  multitudes 
to  do  likewise. 

Pachomius  (348),  who,  recognizing  the  peculiar  temptations 
of  solitary  life,  first  gathered  the  hermits  into  brotherhoods, 
and  so  became  the  father  of  cloister  life.  Benedict  of  Nursia 
(543),  founder  of  the  first  monasteries  in  Italy,  and  father  of 
the  great  Benedictine  order  of  monks.  Three  vows  were  ex- 
acted of  those  wishing  to  enter:  first,  lifelong  adherence  to  the 
brotherhood;  second,  absolute  chastity  and  poverty;  third,  un- 
questioning obedience.  The  Benedictine  order  grew  rapidly  and 
spread  throughout  the  church. 


Chubch  History.  11 

(c)  Government.  The  Patriarchs,  a  higher  order  of  eccles- 
iastics, arose  above  the  Metropolitans.  These  Patriarchs  united 
in  themselves  the  supreme  legislative  and  executive  power  in 
the  church.  There  were  four  of  these  of  equal  rank,  with  their 
seat  of  authority  at  Rome,  Constantinople,  Alexandria  and  An- 
tioch.  Later,  Jerusalem  also  was  added.  In  matters  of  doc- 
trine the  patriarchs  were  subject  only  to  the  General  Councils 
summoned  from  time  to  time. 

The  patriarch  of  Rome  early  began  to  claim  a  pre-eminence 
above  the  others.  Leo  I  (440-461)  boldly  called  himself  the 
"successor  of  Peter,"  "the  head  of  the  church,"  and  "the  Vicar 
of  Christ."  His  fearlessness  in  standing  forth  as  the  protector 
of  the  people  during  the  invasions  of  Attila  and  Genseric,  after 
the  emperor  had  forsaken  the  city,  gave  him  great  prestige. 
The  influence  of  his  position  grew  correspondingly.  By  the  year 
500  the  Roman  patriarchs  were  commonly  called  "popes." 

III.     FORMULATION   OF   DOCTRINE. 

The  glory  of  this  period  is  found  in  the  clear  and  definite 
statement  of  fundamental  Christian  truths  as  formulated  by 
several  General  (or  ecumenical)  councils.  Three  controversies 
overshadowed  all  others. 

(a)  As  to  the  nature  of  the  Trinity.  Two  theological  parties 
were  found  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century.  The  main 
spokesmen  were  Arius  and  Athanasius.  Arius  taught  that  the 
Father  created  Christ  out  of  nothing,  as  the  first  and  greatest 
of  all  his  creatures.  Christ  was  therefore  of  a  different  essence 
and  nature  than  the  Father.  But  in  view  of  the  glory  that  was 
to  be  His,  Christ  might  be  called  "the  Son,"  "the  Logos,"  and 
also  "God,"  although  not  God  in  reality.  Athanasius  insisted 
that  Christ  was  of  the  same  essence  with  the  Father,  and  co- 
equal and  co-eternal  with  him. 

To  settle  the  question,  Constantine  the  Great  summoned  the 
first  General  Council  at  Nicaea  in  325.  Three  hundred  and 
eighteen  bishops  assembled.  All  the  expenses  of  the  visiting 
bishops  were  paid  by  the  emperor.  The  debate  continued  for 
one  month.  Athanasius  was  declared  to  be  right.  The  conclu- 
sion of  the  council  was  thus  expressed:  Christ  is  "the  only  be- 
gotten son  of  God,"  "very  God  of  very  God,"  "of  one  substance 
with  the  Father." 


12  Outline  Studies  ox  the  Church. 

For  the  next  half  century,  the  two  parties  struggled  for 
supremacy  with  varying  fortunes.  Another  question  also  arose; 
namely,  What  is  the  position  of  the  Holy  Ghost  in  the  Trinity? 
The  Arians  declared  the  Holy  Ghost  to  be  only  a  "power"  or 
an  "influence,"  or  at  most,  "the  first  being  created  by  Christ." 
Theodosius  the  Great  summoned  the  second  General  Council  at 
Constantinople  in  381.  The  conclusion  of  this  council  was.  that 
there  is  but  one  divine  essence,  yet  in  three  persons;  the  three 
being  equal  in  rank,  glory  and  majesty.  "The  Father  is  God; 
the  Son  is  God;  the  Holy  Ghost  is  God."  And  yet,  "there  are 
not  three  Gods,  but  one  God."  "The  Trinity  in  the  Unity;  and 
the  Unity  in  the  Trinity  are  to  be  worshipped." 

(b)  As  to  the  nature  of  Christ.  The  divine-human  person- 
ality of  Christ  next  challenged  attention.  The  truth  emerged 
only  after  long  controversy  with  defective  views.  Apollinarius 
taught  that  Christ  had  a  human  body,  and  a  human  soul ;  but  that 
the  divine  Logos  (the  word  of  John  1:1-18)  took  the  place  of 
the  human  spirit.  The  complete  humanity  of  Christ  was  thus 
lost. 

Nestorius  insisted  that  the  man  Jesus  was  born  of  the  Virgin 
Mary,  and  God  only  chose  this  man  Jesus  "as  the  temple  which 
He  (Christ)  might  inhabit."  Thus  Christ  was  a  man  plus  a 
God,  but  not  a  God-man.  Eutychus  declared  that  after  the  birth, 
the  divinity  of  Christ  absorbed  the  humanity.  Hence  Christ 
was  no  longer  either  true  God  or  true  man.  Each  of  these 
teachers  had  a  large  following. 

The  General  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451)  condemned  these 
three  errors,  embodied  in  its  conclusions  a  letter  sent  by  Bishop 
Leo  I  of  Rome,  and  declared  that  Jesus  Christ  was  "true  God 
and  true  Man."  As  to  His  deity  He  is  "of  the  essence  of  God." 
As  to  His  humanity  He  is  "of  one  essence  with  us."  The  two 
natures  in  Him  are  "without  confusion,  without  conversion, 
without  severance,  without  division."  This  is  the  faith  of  the 
Christian  Church  to  this  day. 

(c)  As  to  the  nature  of  Man  and  God's  grace.  The  leaders 
of  the  two  opposing  parties  were  Pelagius  and  Augustine. 
Pelagius  taught  that  Adam  was  sinless,  had  a  free  will,  and 
that  the  fall  was  only  an  isolated  act  of  disobedience  without 


Church  History.  13 

any  evil  after  effects.  Therefore,  "original  sin"  as  well  as 
"hereditary  guilt"  were  denied. 

Pelagius  furthermore  taught  that  there  were  sinless  men 
before  Christ,  though  such  were  indeed  rather  rare.  God's 
grace  to  Him  was  no  more  than  a  supernatural  help  that  strength- 
ened the  natural  will,  enlightened  the  understanding,  and  brought 
the  forgiveness  of  sin.  The  system  of  Pelagius  thus  presented 
a  superficial  view  both  of  divine  grace  and  human  nature. 

Augustine  maintained  that  the  race  was  organically  united 
and  fell  in  Adam,  and  therefore  all  his  posterity  became  corrupt 
and  are  all  under  a  curse.  The  grace  of  God  is  a  divine  power, 
forgiving  sin,  creating  man  anew  and  imparting  divine  life. 

The  views  of  Pelagius  were  condemned  by  various  councils, 
while  Augustine  still  represents  Protestantism  in  the  m.ain. 

IV.      FIVE   GREAT    MEN    OF   THIS    PERIOD. 

Ambrose  (397)  bishop  of  Milan,  father  of  Latin  church 
hymnody  and  music.  He  forced  Theodosius  the  Great  to  do 
public  penance  for  his  crimes.  John  Chrysostom  (407)  the  most 
famous  pulpit  orator  of  the  period  and  a  fearless  reformer. 
Jerome  (420)  a  learned  scholar  who  produced  a  new  version  of 
Scripture  into  the  Latin  which  is  still  used  in  all  Roman  Catho- 
lic Churches.  Augustine  (430)  bishop  of  Hippo,  the  greatest 
spiritual  and  intellectual  personality  between  St.  Paul  and  the 
Reformation.  St,  Patrick  (463)  missionary  to  Ireland,  founder 
of  hundreds  of  churches  and  monasteries,  now  the  patron  saint 
of  the  Irish  people. 

TEST    QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  four  main  events  of  this  period? 

2.  What  four  emperors  are  named?     Give  at  least  two  events 

of  each  reign. 

3.  What  were  the  "great  migrations"? 

4.  Who  was  Ulfilas  and  what  did  he  do? 

5.  Who  were  the  leaders  in  the  four  invasions  of  Italy  named 

in  the  lesson? 

6.  What  were  some  of  the  special  privileges  granted  the  church? 

7.  How    did    the    deterioration    of    the    Church's    spiritual    life 

show  itself? 


14  Outline  Studies  on  the  Church. 

8.  Who  were  the  great  leaders  of  the  monastic  movement? 

9.  How  was  church  government  further  centralized? 

10.  What  great  doctrinal  controversies  shook  the  church? 

SUGGESTED   TOPICS   FOR   FURTHER   RESEARCH 

Brief  papers  or  talks  should  be  given  on  some  of  these  topics 
by  different  members  of  the  class. 

1.  Interesting  facts  from  the  life  of  Constantlne  the  Great. 

2.  The  tragedy  of  Julian  the  Apostate's  life. 

3.  Theodosius  the  Great  forced  to  do  penance  by  Bishop  Am- 

brose. 

4.  Leo  I  and  his  heroic  protection  of  Rome  against  Attila  and 

Genseric. 

5.  Brief  sketches  of  Anthony,   Pachomius,  Benedict  of  Nursia. 

6.  Papers  on  Arius,  Nestorius,  Pelagius,  the  heretics. 

7.  Papers   on   Athenasius   and   Augustine,   champions   of   ortho- 

doxy. 

8.  St.  Patrick  and  his  missionary  labors. 

9.  "Hypatia,"   a  novel   by  Charles   Kingsley   is  a  brilliant  pre- 

sentation   of   the    conflict   between    Christianity    and    the 
heathen   philosophies.     The   scene  is   laid  in   Alexandria, 

about  the  year  400-415.     The  book  may  be  read  with  great 

profit. 


Church  History.  15 

MEDIEVAL  CHRISTIANITY 

LESSON  III 

The  Glory  a:sd  Decline  of  the  Papacy,  590-1517. 

From  Gregory  the  Great  to  the 

Reformation. 

FIRST  PERIOD.  The  Missionary  Age  590-1073,  From  Gregory 
the  Great  to  Gregory  VII.  This  period  well 
deserves  its  old  name,  "the  Dark  Ages."  We 
shall  notice  especially  the  rise  of  Mohamme- 
danism, the  re-establishment  of  the  "Holy  Ro- 
man Empire,"  the  iconoclastic  movement,  the 
great  missionary  heroes,  and  the  unspeakable 
degradation  of  the  organized  church. 

1.     HISTORICAL   EVENTS. 

(a)  The  Papacy.  Gregory  the  Great  may  be  called  the  last 
of  the  patriarchs  and  the  first  of  the  popes.  Though  of  noble 
parentage,  and  having  brilliant  worldly  prospects,  he  left  all 
and  became  a  Benedictine  monk.  In  590,  he  was  unanimously 
elected  to  the  papal  chair.  By  his  tactful  genius,  he  lifted 
the  papacy  to  heights  never  before  reached.  Bands  of  mis- 
sionaries were  sent  to  the  heathen,  the  Arian  Lombards  of 
northern  Italy,  and  to  England. 

Marvelous  success  crowned  these  efforts.  The  temporal 
power  of  the  pope  was  greatly  increased,  and  he  became  virtu- 
ally an  earthly  sovereign.  Gregory  gave  the  church  a  new 
liturgy,  chants,  and  songs  which  are  still  in  universal  use  in 
Catholic  churches.  Likewise  he  popularized  the  doctrine  of 
"purgatory,"  encouraged  the  veneration  of  relics,  and  gave  im- 
petus to  the  doctrine  of  "transubstantiation." 

During  the  following  two  centuries  the  popes  were  ordinary, 
or  little  known  men,  but  nevertheless  papal  power  grew  con- 
stantly, owing  largely  to  the  practical  destruction  of  the  patri- 
archates of  Jerusalem,  Antioch  and  Alexandria  by  the  Moham- 
medan   conquests.     The    climax    was    reached    under    Nichols    I 


16  OiTLixr.  Studies  ox  the  Chikhi. 

(pope  from  858-867)  who  fearlessly  maintained  the  prerogatives 
of  his  high  office  against  ecclesiastical  and  royal  opponents. 
During  the  following  two  centuries,  the  papacy  fell  into  unbe- 
lievable depths  of  vice  and  shame. 

(b)  Mohammedanism.  The  Eastern  Church  early  in  the 
seventh  century  had  degenerated  largely  into  subserviency  to 
the  imperial  government,  formalism,  and  image  and  saint  wor- 
ship. Missionary  zeal  was  entirely  lacking,  while  theological 
hairsplitting  was  the  common  passion.  Then,  ]\Iohammed  ap- 
peared. He  was  born  at  Mecca  in  Arabia,  grew  up  without 
school  advantages  and  became  a  camel  driver  and  goat  herder. 
From  his  early  youth  he  was  subject  to  epileptic  fits.  When 
about  forty  years  old,  he  began  to  have  heavenly  visions  and 
revelations  (so  he  claimed) ;  and  soon  announced  himself  to 
be  God's  prophet.  His  first  followers  came  from  his  near 
kinsfolk  but  his  townsmen  rejected  his  claims,  and  Mohammed 
was  forced  to  flee  (in  622,  the  year  of  the  Hegira — flight).  But 
within  eleven  years  all  Arabia  had  been  conquered  and  har. 
accepted  the  claims  of  his  supernatural  mission. 

The  revelations  of  Mohammed  first  written  upon  loose  leaves, 
were  later  gathered  into  the  Koran,  or  Mohammedan  sacred 
book.  It  presents  a  strange  compound  of  Christian,  Jewish  and 
heathen  elements  mixed  with  utter  absurdities:  "the  confused 
ferment  of  a  great,  rude,  human  soul."  Its  main  tenets  are: 
There  is  but  one  God  and  Mohammed  is  his  chief  prophet. 
Submission  (Arabic,  "Islam")  to  the  divine  will  is  the  principal 
virtue.  Rooting  out  idolatry  and  spreading  Islan)  by  fire  and 
sword  is  the  main  duty. 

Within  a  century,  Arabia,  Palestine,  Syria,  Egypt,  northern 
Africa,  Spain  and  southern  France  had  been  subdued  and  Chris- 
tianity in  these  countries  was  almost  rooted  out.  In  the  east, 
Moslem  armies  twice  pounded  at  the  gates  of  Constantinople; 
in  the  west  at  Tours  (732)  they  were  repulsed  in  a  great  battle 
by  Charles  Martel  and  his  brave  Franks. 

(c)  Charlemagne,  the  grandson  of  Charles  Martel,  waged 
countless  wai's  until  he  ruled  over  all  central  Europe  (approxi- 
mately what  is  now  France,  the  Netherlands,  Germany,  Austria 
and  half  of  Italy).  On  Christmas  Day.  800,  he  was  crowned  in 
St.  Peter's  cathedral  in   Rome  by  pope  Leo  III,  as   Emperor  of 


Church  History.  17 

the  restored  "Holj'  Roman  Empire."  Charlemagne  was  a  great 
ruler.  Education,  religion  and  civilization  were  fostered,  and 
agriculture,  manufacture,  and  commerce  were  developed.  He 
maintained  a  firm  alliance  with  the  pope,  styled  himself  "the 
defender  of  the  church"  and  zealously  carried  on  missionary 
operations  with  the  sword.  His  heart  was  especially  set  on 
converting  the  heathen  Saxons.  The  choice  of  baptism  or  the 
sword  was  offered  them.  After  thirty-three  years  of  warfare, 
the  principal  Saxon  chiefs  were  overcome  and  submitted  to  the 
baptism.     Then  Charlemagne  acted  as  their  sponsor. 

(d)  Iconoclastic  (image-breaking)  Movement.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  eighth  century,  image  worship  had  become  an 
idolatrous  abuse  throughout  the  East.  This  abuse  aroused  the 
fanatical  zeal  and  abhorrence  of  the  Moslems  and  Jews  against 
the  Christians,  and  was  a  constant  obstacle  to  their  conversion. 
Hence,  several  Emperors  during  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries 
endeavored  to  effect  a  reform  by  ordering  images  and  pictures 
removed  from  the  churches.  This  was  bitterly  opposed,  espe- 
cially by  the  clergy  and  monks. 

The  controversy  lasted  a  century  and  ended  in  a  complete 
victory  for  image  worship.  In  892,  images  and  pictures  were 
restored  to  the  churches  and  a  curse  was  pronounced  against 
all  who  opposed  them  further.  By  the  end  of  the  century,  the 
idolatrous  use  of  images  prevailed  throughout  Christendom. 

II.     GREAT    MISSIONARIES. 

This  period  is  redeemed  in  part  by  its  great  missionary 
activity. 

Augustine  (not  to  be  confused  with  St.  Augustine  of  Hippo") 
was  sent  with  a  band  of  forty  monks  by  Gregory  the  Great  to 
evangelize  England.  The  king  of  Kent  was  soon  converted, 
thousands  of  his  subjects  were  baptized  and  devoted  men  car- 
ried the  gospel  throughout  the  island.  Augustine  became  the 
first  bishop  of  Canterbury  and  died  in  605. 

Columba,  an  Irish  monk  (597)  became  the  "Apostle  of  Scot- 
land." He  made  the  island  of  lona  a  missionary  lighthouse  for 
the  heathen  of  all  Scotland.  Many  churches  and  monasteries 
were  founded.  He  died  at  his  midnight  devotions  beside  the 
altar. 


18  Outline  Studies  on  the  Chukch. 

Columbanus  (615),  another  Irish  monk,  with  a  company  of 
twelve  carried  the  gospel  to  southeastern  France  and  Switzer- 
land. 

Boniface  (755),  an  English  monk,  became  the  "Apostle  of 
Germany."  The  most  dramatic  incident  of  his  career  was  the 
cutting  down  of  the  sacred  oak  at  Geismar  (in  Hesse).  When 
this  oak,  sacred  to  Thor,  the  God  of  Thunder,  fell  and  a  church 
had  been  built  from  the  wood,  the  heathen  were  won  by  the 
thousands.     Many  monasteries   and  churches   were   erected. 

Ansgar  (865),  the  "Apostle  to  the  Scandinavians"  worked 
with  holy  zeal  in  Denmark,  Sweden  and  Norway  to  establish 
Christianity.  No  missionary  has  surpassed  him  in  heroic  pa- 
tience and  humility. 

Methodius  (885)  and  his  brother  Cyril  were  the  "Apostles  to 
the  Slavs."  They  gave  the  Slavs  a  written  language  and  a 
translation  of  large  portions  of  the  Bible.  Within  a  century, 
multitudes  of  Moravian  Slavs,  Bohemians,  Poles,  Hungarians 
and  Russians  were  won.  Generally  the  rulers  would  be  bap- 
tized first,  following  them  the  subjects  would  be  compelled  to 
submit  to  baptism  also.  Hundreds  were  often  baptized  thus, 
at  once,  in  the  rivers.  An  old  monk  says  of  such  a  scene: 
"It  was  a  sight  wonderfully   curious   and   beautiful  to  behold." 

III.     CHURCH    LIFE   AND   DOCTRINE. 

The  wholesale  conversions  commonly  practiced  brought  into 
the  church  multitudes  who  were  still  heathen  at  heart.  The 
church  became  more  and  more  filled  with  pagan  ideas  and 
usages.  Outward  ceremonies  were  substituted  for  regeneration. 
The  veneration  of  saints  and  relics  displaced  morality.  Preach- 
ing, except  by  missionaries,  fell  into  complete  disuse.  Christi- 
anity sank  to  its  deepest  shame. 

During  the  tenth  century  the  papacy  was  a  cesspool  of  in- 
iquity. Lewd  men  of  illegitimate  birth  sat  in  the  papal  chair. 
High  positions  in  the  church  were  sold  to  the  highest  bidder. 
The  celibacy  of  the  clergy  was  enjoined,  but  the  majority  had 
lawful  wives  or  concubines.  True  faith  dwelt  indeed  in  many 
pious  hearts,  but  the  church  organization  was  foul  and  corrupt. 

In  844,  Radbertus,  abbot  of  Corbia  in  France,  taught  that  in 
the  Lord's  supper  the  bread  and  wine  while  appearing  to  remain 


Church  History.  19 

the  same  were  nevertheless  changed  into  the  actual  body  and 
blood  of  Christ,  identical  with  His  body  while  on  earth.  After 
a  long  controversy,  this  view  prevailed  and  was  declared  by  the 
church  to  be  an  essential  article  of  faith.  This  is  known  as  the 
doctrine  of  transubstantiation. 

Belief  in  an  intermediate  state  after  death  known  as  "purga- 
tory," (already  popularized  by  Gregory  the  Great)  now  also  was 
made  an  article  of  faith.  It  was  taught  that  in  purgatory  the 
soul  was  cleansed  and  prepared  for  heaven.  The  prayers  of 
the  living  and  especially  masses  read  by  the  priests,  (for  goodly 
sums)  were  believed  to  be  very  helpful  to  the  soul.  This  was 
a  most  convenient  doctrine  considering  the  morals  of  the  age. 
Also  it  was  very  lucrative  for  the  priesthood. 

IV.     THE  GREAT  SCHISIVI. 

The  Eastern  and  Western  sections  of  the  church  for  cen- 
turies had  been  growing  farther  and  farther  apart.  Rome  and 
Constantinople  were  separated  by  language,  race,  nationality, 
and  mental  attitudes.  In  1054,  the  final  break  occurred.  Po- 
litical rivalries,  ecclesiastical  jealousies,  and  doctrinal  differ- 
ences all  played  a  part. 

Finally  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople  and  the  pope  at  Rome 
anathematized  and  excommunicated  one  another.  The  schism 
has  never  been  healed.  The  Greek  Catholic  and  Roman  Catholic 
Church  continue  to  do  so  to  this  day. 


TEST   QUESTIONS 

1.  For  what  is  Gregory  the  Great  renowned?     Nicholas  I? 

2.  What  are  the  main  tenets  of  Mohammedanism? 

3.  How  did  Charlemagne  seek  to  lift  up  his  people? 

4.  What  was  the  iconoclastic  movement? 

5.  What  was  the  main  work  of  Augustine?     Columba?     Colum- 

banus?     Boniface?    Ansgar?     ]\Iethodius? 

6.  Why  did  the  Church  life  deteriorate?     Give  instances. 

7.  What  is  meant  by  consubstantiation?     Purgatory? 

8.  What  were  the  causes  of  the  "great  schism"? 


20  Outline  Studies  ox  the  Church. 

SUGGESTED  TOPIC  FOR  FURTHER  RESEARCH 

1.  The  controversies  of  Nicholas  I. 

2.  Life  and  Teachings  of  Moliammed. 

3.  Charlemagne  and  the  Conversion  of  the  Saxons. 

4.  Augustine  and  the  Conversion  of  England. 

5.  Boniface  and  the  cutting  down  of  the  Sacred  Oak. 

6.  Transubstantiation. 

7.  Purgatory. 

8.  Causes  of  Great  Schism. 


Church  History.  21 

LESSON  IV 

Second    Period.      The    Papal   Age,    1073-1294. 
From  Gregory  VII  to  Boniface  VIII. 

This  Period  witnessed  the  zenith  of  the  papacy,  the  waging 
of  seven  crusades  to  recapture  the  Holy  Land 
from  the  Saracenes,  and  the  rise  of  protesting 
sects.  The  center  of  interest  is  in  the  Western 
Church.  Nothing  noteworthy  occurred  in  the 
East. 

I.     THE    PAPACY. 

Gregory  VII.  Within  one  generation,  the  papacy  was  lifted 
from  the  cesspool  to  the  throne,  through  the  influence  of  one 
man,  Hildebrand,  a  Benedictine  monk.  For  twenty-five  years, 
he  was  the  power  behind  the  papal  chair;  for  twelve  years 
(1073-1085)  he  ruled  as  pope,  taking  the  name  Gregory  VII. 
His  life's  passion  was  to  reform  the  church.  Four  great  reforms 
may  be  attributed  to  him. 

(a)  A  purged  papacy.  By  consummate  diplomacy  and  great 
personal  influence,  he  secured  the  election  of  six  worthy  popes 
during  a  period  of  twenty-five  years,  and  then  accepted  the 
papal  chair  himself. 

(b)  A  celibate  priesthood.  Married  and  immoral  priests 
were  deposed,  and  all  people  were  prohibited  from  accepting 
their  ministrations. 

(c)  Simony  and  lay  investiture  were  stopped.  That  is,  the 
buying  and  selling  of  positions  in  the  church,  or  accepting  a 
church  position  through  the  patronage  of  the  secular  power, 
was  brought  to  an  end. 

(d)  An  independent  papacy.  The  pope  was  to  be  elected 
by  the  college  of  cardinals,  without  any  secular  interference  or 
influence;  and  as  "vicar  of  Christ"  was  declared  supreme  in  the 
church  and  the  world. 


22  Outline  Studies  oiv  the  Church. 

These  reforms  aroused  great  opposition,  and  could  be  only 
partially  carried  out. 

The  most  dramatic  scene  in  the  life  of  Gregory  VII  was  the 
abject  humiliation  of  Henry  IV  of  Germany,  who  stood  for  three 
days,  barefoot  and  in  sackcloth  at  the  gate  of  the  pope's  palace 
at  Canossa,  begging  to  be  received  and  forgiven. 

Innocent  III  (1198-1216)  carried  papal  assumption  to  its  diz- 
ziest heights,  for  he  claimed  to  "stand  between  man  and  God; 
below  God,  above  man;  judge  of  all,  judged  by  none."  Further- 
more, he  declared  that,  "to  the  pope  has  been  committed  not 
only  the  whole  church,  but  the  whole  world."  Philip  Augustus, 
King  of  France,  John  of  England  and  many  minor  princes  and 
nobles  were  forced  to  yield  to  these  claims. 

The  Interdict.  Such  assumptions  were  made  possible  only 
by  the  crass  ignorance,  the  superstitious  fears,  and  the  spiritual 
childishness  of  the  people.  The  threat  of  the  interdict  struck 
terror  to  the  heart.  The  interdict  was  a  papal  decree  with- 
holding from  an  entire  nation  all  religious  services  and  rites. 
Churches  were  closed,  infants  remained  unbaptized,  the  dying 
were  unvisited,  the  dead  remained  unburied,  no  sacraments 
were  administered,  and  all  subjects  were  loosed  from  their 
allegiance  to  the  sovereign.  No  sovereign  could  long  withstand 
such  a  weapon. 

The  Inquisition  was  a  spiritual  court  for  detecting  and  pun- 
ishing departures  from  the  doctrines  of  the  church.  It  was 
instituted  by  Innocent  III  and  flourished  for  five  centuries.  "By 
secret  espionage,  ensnaring  examination,  inhuman  torture,  and 
travesties  of  a  trial"  opposition  to  papal  assumption  and  doc- 
trine was  crushed  out. 

II.     THE  CRUSADES. 

After  the  capture  of  the  Holy  Land  by  the  Mohammedans, 
pilgrims  to  the  Christian  sacred  places  were  treated  for  a  long 
period,  with  consideration.  However,  when  the  barbarous  Turks 
came  into  power  in  the  eleventh  century,  persecutions  began. 
Every  manner  of  indignity  and  torture  was  inflicted  upon  the 
Christian  pilgrims.  The  news  thereof  sent  a  thrill  of  horror 
through  all  Christendom. 

Peter  the  Hermit.  Pope  Urban  II    (successor  of  Gregory  VII) 


Chukch  History.  23 

and  Bernard  of  Clairvoux  with  impassioned  eloquence  stirred 
up  the  masses,  the  nobles  and  the  kings.  With  the  cry,  "God 
wills  it,"  a  mighty  movement  was  started,  which  lasted  two 
centuries  and  devoured  5,000,000  men.  Seven  crusades  were 
waged.  English,  French,  German  and  Italian  heroes  fought  side 
by  sido. 

In  the  first  crusade  (1096-1099),  Jerusalem  was  captured,  and 
a  Christian  kingdom  established  in  Palestine.  Godfrey  of 
Bouillon,  the  most  prominent  leader  of  the  hosts,  was  chosen 
as  the  first  king.  With  varying  fortunes,  this  kingdom  lasted 
for  ninety  years,  fighting  continually  for  its  life.  Internal  dis- 
sensions and  jealousies  were  a  constant  source  of  weakness. 

Finally  in  1187,  Jerusalem  was  again  captured  by  the  bril- 
liant Moslem  leader,  Saladin.  This  occasioned  the  third  crusade 
(1189).  Several  cities  were  captured  in  Palestine.  "Prodigious 
feats  of  arms  were  performed.  Richard  the  Lionhearted,  king 
of  England,  and  the  most  brilliant  of  the  leaders,  distinguished 
himself  by  amazing  deeds  of  valor, — but  Jerusalem  was  not 
retaken.     The  other  crusades  accomplished  but  little. 

Among  the  beneficial  results  of  these  crusades  may  be  named: 
an  awakening  of  the  national  feeling;  a  new  sense  of  universal 
brotherhood;  an  increased  knowledge  of  the  arts,  science,  and 
literature  of  the  Greeks  and  Saracenes;  an  increase  of  the 
power  of  the  papacy;  and  a  stimulated  religious  devotion. 

III.     PROTESTING   SECTS,   ALBIGENSES   AND   WALDENSES. 

The  Albigenses  received  their  name  from  Albi,  a  city  of 
Southern  France.  The  Scriptures  were  diligently  circulated  by 
them  in  their  native  tongue  and  acknowledged  as  the  only  rule 
of  faith.  This  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures  led  them  to  reject 
transubstantiation,  purgatory,  masses  for  the  dead,  adoration  of 
images,  and  calling  upon  the  saints.  But  with  this  protest 
against  Romish  errors,  they  combined  grave  and  dangerous 
errors  of  their  own.  A  General  Council  held  at  Rome  in  1179 
anathematized  them,  and  the  infamous  Inquisition  nearly  com- 
pleted the  work  of  their  extermination. 

The  Waldenses  were  followers  of  Waldo,  a  merchant  of 
Lyons.  He  had  a  deep  religious  experience  and  desired  to  share 
it  with   others.     The  greater  part  of  the  New   Testament    was 


24  Outline  Studies  on  the  Church. 

translated  into  the  native  tongue,  at  his  own  expense.  Many 
traveling  lay  preachers,  known  as  the  "Poor  Men  of  Lyons," 
carried  the  Gospel  everywhere.  As  the  regular  clergy  did  prac- 
tically no  preaching,  these  traveling  evangelists  were  joyously 
received  by  the  masses.  In  1179,  all  such  lay  preaching  was 
absolutely  forbidden  by  a  General  Council.  Four  years  later, 
the  Waldenses  seceded  from  the  papal  church.  Their  number 
rapidly  spread  into  Spain,  Italy,  Switzerland,  Germany  and 
Bohemia. 

The  Waldenses  repudiated  papal  and  priestly  assumptions, 
rejected  indulgences,  emphasized  the  universal  priesthood  of  be- 
lievers, and  denied  the  virtue  of  compulsory  celibacy.  They 
rejected  the  Romish  errors  also  rejected  by  the  Albigenses, 
while  avoiding  the  dangerous  errors  into  which  the  latter  had 
fallen.  Bloody  crusades  were  waged  against  both  sects,  and 
unnameable  cruelties  were  inflicted  upon  them  by  order  of  the 
"Holy   (?)  Father"  at  Rome,  and  with  his  benediction. 

IV.     MONASTICISM   AND  SCHOLASTICISM. 

New  monastic  orders  w^ere  constantly  springing  up.  The 
two  most  famous  of  this  period  were  the  Franciscans  founded 
by  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  and  the  Dominicans  founded  by  St. 
Dominic.  These  orders  w-ere  also  known  from  their  manner 
of  dress  as  Grey  Friars  and  Black  Friars.  They  were  dis- 
tinguished by  their  zeal  for  teaching  and  preaching  among  the 
common  people.  These  orders  grew  rapidly,  became  powerful, 
and — degenerated. 

Scholasticism  was  the  name  applied  to  the  movement  whose 
aim  was  to  analyze  Christian  dogmas  by  the  human  reason,  to 
develop  them  by  speculation  and  philosophy,  and  to  prove  their 
inherent  truth  by  logical  processes.  As  only  philosophical,  not 
Scriptural  proof  was  sought,  the  Bible  was  neither  appealed  to 
nor  largely  consulted  by  the  scholastics. 

The  most  famous  of  the  schoolmen  were  Anselm  of  Canter- 
bury (1109)  whose  life  motto  was  "Believe  in  order  to  under- 
stand." Peter  Abelard  (1142)  whose  motto  w^as  "Understand 
before  you  believe."  Peter  Lombard  (1164)  known  as  the 
"Master  of  Sentences."  Bonaventura  (1274)  for  his  fervent 
devotion   was   called   the   "Seraphic   Doctor."     Thomas   Aquinas 


Church  Histoky.  25 

(1274)  wrote  a  famous  work  entitled  "The  Sum  of  Theology" 
still  justly  famous  among  Catholics.  His  sweet  and  devout 
spirit  won  him  the  name  "The  Angelic  Doctor."  Duns  Scotus 
(1308)   is  remembered  as  the  "Subtle  Doctor." 

V.     DOCTRINES   AND   USAGES. 

Liturgical  forms  were  multiplied,  while  preaching  became 
almost  extinct.  The  celebration  of  the  "Mass"  was  made  the 
main  feature  of  the  service,  and  religious  dramas  were  largely 
used  to  convey  instruction.  Though  the  regular  clergy  seldom 
preached,  the  monks  and  friars  were  very  zealous  in  doing  so 
in  a  simple,  popular  manner,  in  the  native  tongue  of  the  people. 

The  sacraments  were  officially  declared  to  number  seven; 
confirmation,  extreme  unction,  penance,  ordination,  and  mar- 
riage being  added.  In  the  Lord's  Supper,  the  cup  was  withdrawn 
from  the  people  because  the  bread  having  been  transubstanti- 
ated into  the  actual  body  of  Christ  would  also  contain  the 
blood.     The  officiating  priest  drank  from  the  cup  for  all. 

The  doctrine  of  indulgences  was  universally  accepted.  In- 
stead of  hearty  repentance  and  confession  on  the  part  of  an 
offender,  he  might  be  declared  absolved  by  the  priest,  provided 
a  set  routine  of  prayers,  or  benevolent  gifts,  or  special  service 
to  the  church,  etc.,  as  imposed  by  the  priest,  were  substituted. 
The  supererogatory  (more  than  necessary)  merits  of  the  saints 
could  also  be  accredited  to  a  "weak"  brother  by  the  priests,  for 
a  suitable  consideration. 

Magnificent  cathedrals  sprang  up  in  all  parts  of  Christendom 
during  this  period.  Many  of  them  still  stand,  the  delight  and 
awe  of  the  tourist. 

The  Synod  of  Toulouse,  1229,  has  the  unsavory  distinction 
of  forbidding,  for  the  first  time,  both  the  possession  and  the 
reading  of  the  Bible.  The  Catholic  Church  has  never  repudi- 
ated this  prohibition. 

TEST    QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  three  distinctive  features  of  this  period? 

2.  What  reforms  did  Gregory  VII  inaugurate? 

3.  What  were  the  claims  of  Innocent  III? 


26  Outline  Studies  ox  the  Church. 

4.  What   was    the    Interdict?     Inquisition? 

5.  What   did    the   first    crusade    accomplish?     The    third?     The 

others? 

6.  What    were     the     chief     tenets     of    the     Albigenses?      The 

Waldenses? 

7.  What  two  monastic  orders  originated  in  this  period? 

8.  Who  were  some  of  the  scholastic  leaders? 

9.  What  is  meant  by  the  withdrawal  of  the  cup?     Indulgences? 

Supererogatory  works? 
10.  For  what  is  the  Synod  of  Toulouse  infamous? 

SUGGESTED  TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  RESEARCH 

1.  The  life  of  Gregory  VII. 

2.  Henry  IV  of  Germany  at  Canossa. 

3.  Simony  and  lay  investiture. 

4.  Saladin,  the  most  brilliant  of  Moslem  leaders. 

5.  Richard  the  Lion  Heart  and  his  times. 

6.  The  first  Crusade. 

7.  The  Waldenseian  Church  today. 

8.  Religious  Plays  in  this  period. 

9.  "God   Wills  It"  by  W.   S.   Stearns   vividly   portrays  the   time 

and    events    of    the    First    Crusade.      Should    be    read    if 
possible. 


Chubch  History.  •  27 

LESSON  V 

Third  Period.     The  Pre-Refobmation  Age.     1294-1517. 

BOXIFACE    VIII    to   the    REFORMATION. 

During  the  Pre-Reformation  age,  the  papacy  declined  and  sank 
into  shame.  Reformers  in  various  lands  arose 
protesting  against  the  degradation  of  the 
church.  Reform  Councils  were  held  which  ac- 
complished practically  nothing.  Various  ten- 
dencies arose. which  prepared  the  way  for  the 
great  Protestant  Reformation  of  the  16th  Cen- 
tury. 

I.     THE   PAPACY. 

The  history  of  the  papacy  during  the  entire  period  will  be 
taken  up  first.  Boniface  VIII,  (pope  1294-1303)  reached  the 
heights  of  papal  presumption  in  the  famous  edict  known  as  the 
Bull  Unam  Sanctam.  In  it,  these  words  occur, — "There  is  one 
holy,  catholic,  apostolic  church  outside  of  which  there  is  neither 
salvation  nor  remission  of  sins."  "Indeed  we  declare,  announce, 
and  define,  that  it  is  altogether  necessary  to  salvation  for  every 
human  creature  to  be  subject  to  the  Roman  pontiff."  This  decla- 
ration still  expresses  the  position  of  the  Roman  church,  for  it 
has  never  been  withdrawn. 

After  a  long  controversy  with  Philip  the  Fair,  King  of  France, 
the  king  met  the  threat  of  excommunication  by  having  the  pope 
seized  in  his  own  palace,  treated  with  indignity,  and  imprisoned. 
Angered  beyond  endurance,  the  aged  pope  fell  into  a  frenzy  and 
soon  died.  The  papacy  never  recovered  from  this  blow  to  its 
prestige.  The  times  were  rapidly  changing.  The  rising  national 
spirit  of  the  peoples  of  Europe  would  no  longer  tamely  submit 
to  papal  domination. 

The  Babylonish  Captivity.  (1309-1378.)  The  power  and  influ- 
ence of  Philip  was  such  that  he  secured  in  1309  the  election  of  a 
Frenchman   as   pope,   and   the   removal   of   the   papal   residence 


28  Outline  Studif.s  ox  the  Church. 

from  Rome  to  Avignon  in  southern  France.*  During  a  period  of 
seventy  years  there  were  seven  popes,  all  of  them  Frenchmen, 
residing  at  Avignon.  The  papacy  rapidly  demoralized,  and  be- 
came little  more  than  a  tool  for  French  intrigue.  The  extrava- 
gance and  immoralities  of  the  successive  popes  became  the 
scandal  of  Christendom.  This  period  although  known  as  the 
"Babylonish  Captivity,"  was  for  the  popes  an  agreeable  cap- 
tivity during  which  they  were  glutted  with  wine,  women,  and 
luxury. 

In  1378,  an  Italian  pope  was  chosen  in  Rome.  Afterwards 
the  college  of  cardinals  repudiated  this  election  and  chose 
another  pope,  a  Frenchman.  Each  claimed  to  be  the  supreme 
pontiff.  The  one  from  Rome,  the  other  from  Avignon  hurled 
curses,  and  excommunications  at  the  other.  Christendom  was 
divided  in  its  allegiance.  A  schism  occurred  which  lasted  forty 
years,  during  which  time  popes  reigned  both  at  Rome  and  Avig- 
non. Italy,  Germany,  England,  Denmark  and  Sweden  adhered 
to  the  popes  at  Rome;  while  France,  Spain  and  Scotland  fol- 
lowed the  Avignon  popes. 

The  scandal  of  this  division  finally  led  to  the  calling  of  the 
Council  of  Pisa  (1409).  Both  the  reigning  popes  were  deposed, 
and  a  new  pontiff  was  elected.  But  the  old  popes  denied  the 
authority  of  the  Council  to  depose  them,  and  so  Christendom 
had  three  popes  mutually  reviling  one  another. 

This  condition  of  things  lasted  until  the  Council  of  Constance 
in  Switzerland.  (1414-1418.)  During  the  four  years  of  its  ses- 
sions, this  council  declared  its  absolute  superiority  over  the 
popes,  outlined  a  program  of  reforms  none  of  which  were  ever 
carried  out,  deposed  one  of  the  popes,  demanded  and  received  the 
resignation  of  the  other  two,  burned  John  Huss  at  the  stake 
as  a  heretic,  elected  a  new  pope,  and  adjourned.  Other  reform- 
ing councils  were  held,  but  nothing  of  practical  worth  was 
accomplished. 

*  During  the  absence  oi  tlic  I'oju's,  Home  l)ccaine  almost  depopulated. 
The  number  of  inhabitants  sank  to  less  than  17,000.  The  old  monuments 
were  neglected  or  torn  down  and  used  for  building  material.  The 
churches  decayed.  Uubbish  and  ruins  littered  the  streets.  Sewers  be- 
came clogged  and  stagnant  pools  collected  within  the  city  walls.  Even 
wolves  were  killed  prowling  among  the  ruins.  Political  anarchy  and 
social  chaos  ruled  sui)reme.  The  Romans  became  desperate  in  their 
desire  to  have  the  I'opes  return   to  their  city. 


Church  History.  29 

During  the  last  half  century  before  the  Reformation,  the 
papacy  again  sank  into  the  depths  of  infamy.  The  popes  were 
mere  worldly  princes,  patrons  of  art,  men  of  war.  Their  private 
life  was  generally  scandalous  beyond  description.  No  more 
glaring  contrast  can  possibly  be  imagined  than  that  between  their 
private  life  and  their  spiritual  claims. 

II.      REFORMERS   AND   REFORM-TENDENCIES. 

Though  the  organized  papacy  had  thus  demoralized,  there 
were  not  lacking  mighty  spirits  here  and  there,  and  multitudes 
of  pious  souls  everywhere,  longing  for  a  purification  of  both  "tlie 
head  and  members"  of  the  church. 

(a)  In  England,  John  Wyclif  (1324-1384)  became  the  "Morn- 
ing Star  of  the  Reformation."  He  was  a  learned  scholar,  an  acute 
theologian,  and  a  powerful  preacher  of  the  Word  of  God.  First, 
he  protested  against  the  ignorance,  greed  and  lax  life  of  the 
priests.  Then,  disgusted  by  the  spectacle  of  rival  popes  damning 
one  another,  he  diligently  compared  papal  claims  and  the 
church's  doctrines  with  the  teaching  of  Scripture. 

This  led  him  to  reject  the  claims  of  the  pope,  the  worship 
of  images,  the  invocation  of  saints,  the  celibacy  of  the  priest- 
hood, and  transubstantiation.  His  greatest  work,  however,  was 
the  translation  of  the  Bible  into  English.  Wyclif  had  to  endure 
long  and  bitter  persecutions,  but  powerful  nobles  protected  him, 
and  he  could  not  be  harmed.  Thirty  years  after  his  peaceful 
death,  by  order  of  the  Council  of  Constance,  his  bones  were  ex- 
humed, burned  to  ashes,  and  cast  into  the  river  Swift. 

(b)  John  Tauler,  (1300-1361),  a  Dominican  friar  of  Strass- 
burg,  was  a  preacher  of  magnetic  power,  and  zealous  in  good 
works.  His  sermons  are  of  almost  evangelical  purity,  and  were 
declared  by  Luther  to  be  a  storehouse  of  "fundamental  and 
pure  theology." 

(c)  John  Huss,  (1415),  a  Bohemian,  was  rector  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Prague,  a  diligent  student  of  Wyclif's  writings,  and 
occupied  practically  the  same  theological  standpoint.  Though 
forbidden  to  preach  and  later  excommunicated,  he  continued  his 
work.  Crowds  gathered  to  listen  wherever  he  preached.  He 
was  cited  to  appear  to  defend  himself  before  the  Council  of 
Constance. 


30  Outline  Studies  on  the  Church. 

The  Emperor,  Sigismund,  had  promised  a  safe  conduct.  But 
Huss  was  nevertheless  imprisoned,  condemned  as  a  heretic,  and 
died  at  the  stake  with  the  prayer:  "Lord  Jesus,  I  beseech  thee 
to  pardon  my  enemies."  All  Bohemia  became  aflame.  A  Hussite 
church  was  formed.  The  pope  proclaimed  a  crusade  against 
them.  The  horrors  of  war  swept  over  the  land;  but  the  Hussite 
church  kept  their  doctrines  alive  for  a  century,  preparing  the 
way  for  the  great  Protestant  Reformation. 

(d)  Thomas  a'  Kempis,  (1471),  an  Augustinian  monk  and 
priest,  will  always  be  gratefully  remembered  as  author  of  that 
delicate  rose  in  the  garden  of  devotional  literature,  "The  Imita- 
tion of  Christ."  Though  somewhat  tinctured  with  Romanism,  it 
can  still  be  read  with  profit  by  all  creeds  and  churches.  It  has 
been  more  frequently  reprinted  and  translated  than  any  other 
book  except  the  Bible. 

(e)  Savonarola  (1452-1498),  was  a  Dominican  friar,  and  the 
most  powerful  preacher  of  repentance  and  righteousness  that 
Italy  has  produced.  His  chief  work  was  done  in  Florence  where 
he  filled  the  role  of  preacher,  prophet,  and  statesman.  His  fiery 
eloquence  swayed  all  Florence.  A  great  revival  followed.  The 
sins  of  the  people,  the  rulers,  the  priesthood  and  the  pope  were 
impartially  attacked.  Then  came  the  reaction.  The  pope, 
Alexander  VI,  a  lecherous  renegade,  excommunicated  him. 
Savonarola  was  imprisoned,  and  after  the  travesty  of  a  trial,  con- 
demned and  burned.  Though  his  teachings  have  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic coloring,  yet  he  also  clearly  taught  "justification  by  faith 
only." 

(f)  "Brethren  of  the  Common  Life"  and  "Friends  of  God." 
These  were  groups  of  pious  souls  whose  spiritual  longings  were 
not  satisfied  by  that  which  the  church  offered.  They  were  es- 
pecially numerous  in  the  Netherlands  and  Western  and  Southern 
Germany.  While  not  forming  a  separate  sect,  they  would  meet 
for  Bible  study  and  prayer.  They  sought  especially  a  close,  per- 
sonal union  with  God,  and  the  fruits  of  a  godly  life.  Tauler  and 
Thomas  a'  Kempis  came  from  these  circles. 

(g)  Renaissance.  The  remarkable  revival  of  interest  in  the 
ancient  culture  and  literature  of  Greece  and  Rome  during  the 
fifteenth  century,  is  known  as  the  Renaissance,  which  means 
"new  birth."    Manuscripts  of  the  old  poets,  philosophers,  orators. 


Church  History.  31 

and  historians  were  eagerly  souglit  for  and  studied.  Tlie  inven- 
tion of  movable  metal  types  for  printing  greatly  aided  this 
movement.  Whoever  may  have  originally  invented  printing,  it 
was  John  Guttenberg  in  ]\Iainz  who  first  made  movable  types 
and  practically  used  them  for  printing  books. 

The  first  volume  that  came  from  his  press  was  the  Bible, 
(known  as  the  Mazarin  Bible,  printed  1452-1456).  Books  at 
once  fell  to  a  small  fraction  of  their  former  price.  A  further 
impetus  to  the  Renaissance  was  given  by  the  capture  of  Con- 
stantinople (1453),  by  Mohammed  II.  Greek  scholars  and  learn- 
ing were  thereby  forced  to  flee  to  the  West.  An  age  of  brilliant 
Intellectual  and  artistic  achievements  followed.  Erasmus  (1466- 
1536)  was  the  foremost  Greek  scholar  of  this  age.  He  edited 
and  translated  the  Greek  classics,  church  fathers,  and  above  all, 
the  New  Testament.  It  was  said  of  him  later  that  he  "laid  the 
egg  which  Luther  hatched." 

III.     CHURCH   LIFE  AND  PRACTICES. 

The  sale  of  indulgences  became  a  regular  source  of  church 
revenue.  The  guilt  of  sin,  as  well  as  its  punishment,  was  de- 
clared to  be  removed  by  the  purchase  thereof.  The  sins  of  the 
past  and  sins  yet  to  be  committed;  the  sins  of  the  dead,  as  well 
as  of  the  living  were  all  included.  This  became  a  most  popular 
way  of  getting  rid  of  sin. 

The  translation  of  the  Bible  into  the  native  tongues,  and  the 
reading  of  it  were  absolutely  prohibited.  Fine,  imprisonment, 
torture,  and  even  death  were  visited  upon  the  disobedient.  How- 
ever, especially  in  Germany,  splendid  books  of  devotion,  peniten- 
tial books,  and  booklets  with  Bible  pictures,  were  freely 
circulated. 

Preaching  during  the  latter  part  of  this  period  became  com- 
mon throughout  Germany.  Elsewhere  it  was  almost  entirely  neg- 
lected by  the  regular  clergy. 

Charity  and  benevolent  service  abounded.  Philanthropic  and 
benevolent  institutions  were  richly  supported.  By  such  works, 
it  was  believed,  the  period  to  be  spent  in  purgatory  could  be 
shortened.  Therefore  the  pious  and  the  impious  were  zealous  in 
good  works. 


32  Outline  Studies  ox  the  Church. 

TEST  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  assertions  were  made  in  the  Bull  Unam  Sanctam? 

2.  For  what  were  the  Avignon  popes  best  known? 

3.  What  was  the  Schism  of  1378? 

4.  What  did  the  council  of  Pisa  accomplish?     Constance? 

5.  What  was  the  chief  work  of  Wyclif?     Tauler?     John  Huss? 

Thomas  a'  Kempis?     Savonarola? 

6.  Who  were  the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life? 

7.  What  other  events  aided  the  coming  Reformation? 

8.  How  was  the  efficacy  of  "indulgences"  enlarged? 

SUGGESTED  TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  RESEARCH 

1.  Meaning  of  term  "Bull"  as  used  in  this  lesson. 

2.  Sketch  of  life  of  Boniface  VIII. 

3.  The  nations  adhering  to  Avignon  popes,  and  to  the  Roman. 

4.  The  infamy  of  the  papacy  during  the  seventy  years  before 

the  Reformation. 

5.  The  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life. 

6.  The  invention  of  printing. 

7.  Erasmus,  the  man  who  "Laid  the  egg  which  Luther  hatched." 

8.  Read  "Romola,"  by  George  Eliot.     Scene  is  laid  in  Florence 

during  the  time  of  Savonarola.     "Romola"  is  probably  the 
greatest  historical  novel  in  English. 

"Rienzi,  the  Last  of  the  Roman  Tribunes,"  by  Bulwer 
Lytton,  describes  conditions  in  Rome  during  the  time  of 
the  Babylonish  Captivity.  Both  novels  present  a  remark- 
able amount  of  historical  information. 


Chubch  History.  33 

MODERN  CHRISTIANITY 
LESSON  VI 

1517 — Present  Time. 

The  Reform.\tiox  in   Switzerland  and  Germany,   1517-1563. 

From  the  Posting  of  the  Ninety-Five  Theses  to  the 

Publishing  of  the  Heidelberg  C.\techism. 

The  Reformation  was  a  mighty  religious  revolution;  a  vast  effort 
of  the  human  mind  to  achieve  freedom;  an  in- 
tense struggle  of  the  soul  for  direct  access  to 
God.  The  causes,  leaders,  and  results  of  the 
Reformation  will  be  reviewed  in  this  chapter. 

1.  THE  CAUSES  OF  THE  REFORMATION: 

Many  of  the  causes  of  the  Reformation  have  already  been  dis- 
cussed in  previous  chapters.  For  the  sake  of  greater  clearness, 
a  brief  review  must  however  be  given  here. 

(a)  Unscriptural  doctrines.  Submission  to  pope  and  mem- 
bership in  Roman  church  necessary  to  salvation;  transubstan- 
tiation  and  withdrawal  of  cup  from  the  laity;  indulgences;  purga- 
tory; supererogatory  works. 

(b)  Unscriptural  practices.  Invocation  of  the  Virgin  ^lary 
and  the  saints;  worship  of  images;  forbidding  the  translation, 
possession  and  reading  of  the  Bible;  celibacy  of  the  priesthood; 
sale  of  indulgences;  the  inquisition. 

(c)  Abuses  in  the  church.  Simony;  temporal  power  of  popes 
and  church  dignitaries;  immorality  of  priests;  ignorance  and 
corruption  of  monasteries  and  monastic  orders. 

(d)  Intellectual  awakening.  The  Renaissance;  the  invention 
of  printing;  the  discovery  of  America. 

(e)  Preaching  of  evangelical  doctrines  by  Wyclif,  Huss, 
Tauler,  Savonarola,  the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life  and  others. 

(f)  Economic  and  social  conditions.  A  half  century  of  so- 
cial ferment  and  discontent  preceded  the  Reformation.  The 
peasants  were  ground   down.     Famines   were   frequent.     Prices 


34  OuTLiNK  Studies  ox  the  Church. 

were  rising.  The  nobles  were  merciless.  Class  hatred  was  rife. 
Numerous  uprisings  had  already  occurred.  Society,  was  eager 
for  a  change. 

Such  were  the  religious  and  social  conditions  into  which  the 
torch  of  Reformation  doctrine  fell. 

II.     THE  LEADERS  OF  THE  REFORMATION: 

Such  causes  alone  however  could  never  have  produced  a 
Reformation.  God  lifts  up  the  world  only  by  means  of  conse- 
crated men.  Three  men  of  genius  were  raised  up  to  be  the 
leaders  of  the  Reformation.  Zwingii  and  Luther  who  were  con- 
temporaries, and  Calvin,  who  was  twenty-five  years  younger. 
Other  men  scarcely  less  renowned  were  zealous  co-laborers. 

(a)  Huldreich  Zwingii  (1484-1531)  was  a  Swiss,  born  in  Wild- 
haus,  in  Canton  St.  Gall.  After  receiving  a  splendid  education, 
he  entered  the  Catholic  priesthood  at  the  age  of  twenty-two 
years.  He  served  in  succession  parishes  in  Glarus,  Einsiedein, 
and  Zurich.  Vices  and  abuses  both  in  state  and  church  were 
fearlessly  attacked  from  the  beginning  of  his  ministry. 

While  serving  in  Einsiedein,  Zwingii  became  a  zealous  stu- 
dent of  the  Greek  New  Testament.  He  even  copied  the  epistles 
of  Paul  in  Greek  with  his  own  hand.  These  studies  in  the 
Scriptures  led  him  to  preach  doctrines  which  were  almost  evan- 
gelical, and  which  departed  largely  from  current  Roman  teaching 
as  early  as  1516.  In  1519  Zwingii  was  called  to  Zurich  and  la- 
bored there  until  his  death.  Step  by  step,  he  broke  away  from 
Rome.  Every  practice  and  doctrine  not  clearly  contained  in  the 
Scriptures  was  opposed.  The  people  of  Zurich  willingly  fol- 
lowed his  leadership. 

The  final  breach  occurred  in  1525,  when  the  mass  was  abol- 
ished, and  the  simple  Supper  of  the  Lord  was  substituted,  the 
communicants  receiving  the  sacred  emblems  from  wooden  plates 
and  cups.  The  church  in  practice  and  teaching  was  reformed 
so  as  to  accord  with  the  standards  of  Christ  and  the  Apostles. 
The  Bible  was  translated  into  the  Swiss  dialect.  This  was  the 
first  complete  edition  ever  published  in  German  (1530).  Zwingii 
developed  an  intense  literary  activity.  No  less  than  one  hundred 
and  forty  books  and  tracts  came  from  his  pen. 

From  Zurich  as  a  center,  Reformed  doctrines  rapidly  spread. 


Chubch  History.  35 

Bern,  Basel,  Scliaffhausen,  St.  Gall  and  Glarus  soon  followed  the 
example  of  Zurich.  Persecutions  were  stirred  up.  War  broke 
out  between  the  Catholic  and  the  Reformed  cantons.  At  the 
battle  of  Kappel,  (Oct.  11,  1531),  Zwingli,  who  had  accompanied 
the  troops  as  chaplain,  was  killed.  His  body  was  mutilated  and 
burned,  and  the  ashes  were  mixed  with  the  ashes  of  swine  and 
scattered  to  the  winds. 

(b)  Martin  Luther  (1483-1546)  was  born  in  Eisleben  in  Prus- 
sian Saxony,  and  is  easily  the  most  gigantic  figure  in  German 
history.  While  studying  law,  he  was  awakened  spiritually  by  the 
tragic  death  of  a  dear  friend,  and  became  a  monk.  With  ex- 
emplary zeal  and  conscientiousness  he  gave  himself  to  pious 
exercises  and  penances.* 

His  heart  found  no  peace,  however,  until  it  rested  on  the 
words:  "The  just  shall  live  by  faith."  Diligent  study  of  the 
Scriptures  revealed  to  him  the  helplessness  of  mere,  outward 
religious  observances,  and  the  necessity  of  the  "new  birth."  After 
a  long  struggle,  he  clearly  grasped  the  glorious  doctrine  of 
"justification  by  faith  alone,  without  any  human  merits,  merely 
through  grace."** 

From  the  convent,  Luther  was  called  to  a  theological  pro- 
fessorship of  the  University  of  Wittenberg.  Aroused  by  the 
shameless  sale  of  indulgences  as  conducted  by  John  Tetzel,  he 
nailed  (Oct.  31,  1517)  ninety-five  theses  against  indulgences  and 
other  abuses  to  the  door  of  the  Castle  church,  and  declared 
himself  ready  to  defend  his  theses  against  all  comers. 

Numerous  discussions  followed.  Luther  was  forced  to  appeal 
from  the  authority  of  the  pope  and  church  councils  to  the  su- 
preme authority  of  the  Bible.  Excommunication  followed  and 
he  was  placed  under  the  ban  of  the  empire.  But  powerful  princes 
and  nobles  protected  him  and  Luther's  writings  and  doctrines 
spread   like   wild-fire.     The   rest   of   Luther's   life   was   spent   in 

*  1.  As  a  monk,  he  .sii,rpassecl  all  in  prayer,  fastings  and  self-imposed 
punishments  and  penances.  Of  these  efforts,  he  afterwards  said:  "If 
ever  a  monk  got  to  heaven  by  monkery,  I  would  have  gotten  there." 
But  he  found  in  this  neither  the  assurance  of  pardon  nor  peace  of  heart. 
**  To  the  end  of  his  life,  this  doctrine  was  for  Luther  "the  sum 
and  substance  of  the  gospel,  the  heart  of  theology,  and  the  central  truth 
of  Christianity."  It  became  his  standard  for  measuring  every  otlier 
doctrine  and  every   book   of  the  Bible. 


36  Outline  Studies  on  the  Church. 

directing   the   movement  he  had   begun   and   in  crystalizing  the 
teachings  upon  which  it  rested. 

He  translated  the  Bible  into  German,  issued  many  volumes 
of  sermons  and  expositions  of  the  Scriptures,  wrote  catechisms 
and  numerous  hymns,  and  hurled  controversial  pamphlets  of 
amazing  power  into  the  enemies  camp.  Luther  typifies,  as  none 
other  ever  did,  the  virility  and  genius  of  the  German  people. 

(c)  John  Calvin  (1509-1564)  was  a  Frenchman,  born  at 
Noyon,  but  his  life's  work  was  accomplished  in  Geneva  in  Switz- 
erland. He  studied  law  and  theology,  and  was  preparing  for 
the  priesthood  when  he  was  converted  to  Protestantism.  At 
once  he  became  active  in  comforting  the  persecuted  Reformed 
believers,  and  for  several  years  wandered  about  as  a  fugitive 
evangelist. 

While  visiting  Geneva,  in  1536,  William  Farel,  the  Reformer, 
who  had  already  labored  there  for  several  years,  forced  Calvin 
to  remain  and  assist  him.  With  the  exception  of  three  years, 
Calvin  remained  in  Geneva  until  his  death,  reforming  the  city, 
organizing  the  churches,  and  engaging  in  educational  and  literary 
labors.  He  wrote  codes  of  laws  for  the  government  of  the 
church,  the  state  and  the  morals  of  Geneva.  He  combined  the 
offices  of  preacher,  pastor,  theological  professor,  church-ruler 
and  superintendent  of  schools. 

In  addition  he  was  a  prolific  writer.  He  published  commen- 
taries on  most  of  the  books  of  the  Bible;  issued  catechisms, 
liturgies,  and  volumes  of  sermons;  wrote  controversial  books 
and  treatises  against  Catholics,  Lutherans,  Unitarians,  Pelagians, 
Anabaptists  and  Libertines;  and  carried  on  an  extensive  corres- 
pondence with  Protestant  leaders  of  all  lands.  His  letters  that 
have  been  preserved  alone  fill  ten  volumes. 

Though  feeble  in  health,  he  never  rested.  For  years  he  sub- 
sisted on  one  meal  a  day  on  account  of  indigestion,  but  his  mind 
never  flagged.  At  the  time  of  his  death,  his  religious  influence 
extended  throughout  the  Protestant  world.  Calvin's  friend  and 
successor,  Theodore  Beza,  truly  declares  that  it  is  amazing  "how 
one  little  man  could  be  fit  for  labors  so  numerous  and  great." 

As  a  theologian,  Calvin  is  the  greatest  genius  since  the  days 
of  St.   Paul.     His   chief   work,   "The  Institutes  of  the  Christian 


Church  History.  37 

Religion,"  is  the  principal  literary  monument  of  the  Reformation. 
As  an  exegete,  he  was  the  ablest  of  the  Reformers.  As  a  pastor, 
he  introduced  a  moral  discipline  which  made  Geneva  a  model 
community  and  called  forth  the  eulogy  from  John  Knox,  that 
the  city  was  "the  most  perfect  school  of  Christ  that  ever  was 
in  the  earth  since  the  days  of  the  Apostles."  As  an  educator, 
he  ranks  as  "the  father  of  popular  education,  the  inventor  of 
the  system  of  free  schools."*  As  an  organizer,  he  gave  the 
Reformed  churches  the  form  of  Government  which  they  still 
retain.  As  a  statesman,  he  stood  for  representative  government 
in  church  and  state,  and  Geneva  became  the  mother  of  republics, 
the  inspirer  of  civil  liberty,  and  "the  fertile  seed-plot  of  democ- 
racy."f  The  French  Hugenots,  the  founders  of  the  Dutch  re- 
public, the  Scotch  Covenanters,  and  the  New  England  pilgrims 
were  disciples  of  Calvinism. 

III.     THE   RESULTS  OF  THE   REFORMATION: 

The  aim  of  the  Reformation  was  to  sweep  away  the  obstruc- 
tions which  the  Roman  church  had  put  between  God  and  the 
believer,  and  to  lead  the  Church  back  to  the  practices  and  doc- 
trines of  the  Apostolic  age.  Three  fundamental  principles  were 
reaffirmed  and  have  become  the  foundation  of  Protestantism. 

(a)  The  Objective  Principle  aifirms  that  the  Bible  is  the 
supreme  and  infallible  rule  of  faith  and  practice;  therefore, 
church  traditions,  church  councils,  and  the  utterances  of  the 
popes  have  only  inferior  value.  Hence,  the  Bible  should  be 
translated  into  the  native  tongues  and  should  be  possessed  and 
read  by  every  believer. 

(b)  The  Subjective  Principle  asserts  that  we  are  justified 
before  God  only  by  a  true  and  living  faith  in  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  without  any  merits  of  ours,  merely  of  grace.  Hence, 
human  merits,  works  of  supererogation,  and  ecclesiastical  indul- 
gences are  barred  out. 

(c)  The  Social  Principle  insists  that  all  true  believers  are  of 
equal  spiritual  rank.  Therefore,  to  all  believers  belongs  the 
equal  right  to  read  and  interpret  the  Bible,  to  share  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  church,  to  have  a  voice  in  the  spiritual  affairs 

*  George  Bancroft,  the  historian. 
tGeorge  Bancroft,  the  histori.ui. 


38  OrxLiXE  Studies  ox  the  Chi'rch. 

of  the  congregation,  and  to  be  active  in  religious  work.  The 
unscriptural  presumptions  of  priests  and  popes  are  thus 
repudiated. 

All  the  reformers  agreed  on  these  fundamental  principles. 
But  very  soon  a  difference  appeared  in  interpreting  tlie  presence 
of  Christ  in  the  Lord's  supper.  Zwingli  held  that  the  Lord's 
Supper  was  mainly  a  solemn  memorial  of  the  death  of  Christ, 
in  which  he  was  present  indeed  in  a  sacramental  and  spiritual, 
but  not  in  a  bodily  manner.  Luther  could  not  rid  himself  of 
his  Catholic  instincts,  and  asserted  that  "in,  with,  and  under" 
the  elements  of  bread  and  wine  were  present  substantially,  the 
actual  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  as  born  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and 
crucified  upon  the  cross,  and  now  glorified  in  heaven. 

After  a  lengthy  discussion  between  Zwingli  and  Luther  held 
at  Marburg  (1529),  in  which  the  question  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
was  chiefly  considered,  Luther  refused  the  extended  hand  of 
Zwingli  with  the  words:  "You  have  another  spirit  than  we." 
The  Reformation  movement  was  thus  divided  into  the  Reformed 
and  the  Lutheran  branches. 

In  the  matter  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  Calvin  occupies  an  inter- 
mediate position  between  Zwingli  and  Luther.  While  denying 
a  bodily  and  physical  presence  of  Christ  in  the  Lord's  Supper, 
he  asserts  a  spiritually  real  presence,  and  a  spiritually  real  re- 
ceiving of  Christ's  true  body  and  blood  by  the  believer  only, 
through  faith,  by  the  working  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Calvin's  view 
enriched  that  of  Zwingli,  and  at  once  superseded  it  in  the  Re- 
formed Church;  and  today,  is  probably  the  view  of  the  majority 
of  Protestant  believers. 

IV.— THE  SPREAD  OF  THE  REFORMATION: 

In  less  than  half  a  century,  the  northern  half  of  Germany, 
and  all  of  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden  had  become  prevail- 
ingly Lutheran.  The  Reformed  church  had  spread  over  the 
greater  part  of  Switzerland,  the  Rhine  provinces  of  Germany, 
France,  Holland  and  Scotland;  while  England,  Himgary.  Bohemia 
and  Poland  were  permeated  by  Reformed  doctrine,  and  dotted 
with  Reformed  Churches.  In  Italy  and  Spain,  the  Reformation 
movement  was  suppressed  by  armies,  torture  and  the  scaffold. 


Church  History.  39 

The  loss  of  all  these  lands  awakened  the  Roman  church. 
Some  of  the  worst  abuses  were  removed.  Some  of  the  most  ob- 
jectionable doctrines  were  modified.  The  Society  of  Jesuits, 
founded  in  1540,  stimulated  interest  in  education  and  missions. 
Missionaries  went  out  to  the  West  Indies,  the  Americas,  India, 
and  Japan.  Francis  Xavier  (1552)  was  the  most  famous  of  these. 
He  carried  his  missionary  operations  to  India  and  Japan,  and 
founded  many  congregations. 

TEST    QUESTIONS 

1.  What  ideas  do  you  connect  with  the  terms  named  in  I.  a,  b,  c, 

d?     Review  this  carefully. 

2.  What  are  the  main  facts  of  Zwingli's  life? 

3.  How  was  Luther  led  to  break  away  from  the  Roman  Church? 

4.  For  what  literary  productions  is  Luther  most  famous? 

5.  What  are  the  main  facts  of  Calvin's  life? 

6.  In  what  six  ways  did  Calvin  attain  pre-eminence? 

7.  What  are  the  three  foundation  principles  of  Protestantism? 

8.  In  what  countries  did  Lutheranism  prevail? 

9.  In  what  countries  did  the  Reformed  Church  prevail? 

10.  What    efforts    did    the    Roman    church    make    to    regain    lost 

ground? 

11.  How  did  Zwingli,  Calvin  and  Luther  differ  as  to  the  Lord's 

Supper? 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR   FURTHER  INVESTIGATION 

1.  The  work  of  Zwingli  at  Glarus  and  Einsideln. 

2.  The  last  words  of  Zwingli. 

3.  Luther's  conversion  and  spiritual  experiences. 

4.  Luther  at  Worms. 

5.  Calvin's  conversion. 

6.  Calvin  won  by  Farel  to  remain  in  Geneva. 

7.  Origin  of  the  terms  "Protestant"  and  "Reformed." 

8.  Luther  and  Zwingli  at  Marburg. 

9.  The  Council  of  Trent. 


40  Outline  Studies  on  the  Church. 

10.  Two  historical  novels  of  exceptional  value  are  "the  Friar  of 
Wittenberg,"  by  W.  S.  Davis,  and  "Under  Calvin's  Spell," 
by  Deborah  Alcock.  The  former  gives  vivid  impressions 
of  religious  and  social  conditions  in  Italy  and  Germany 
with  Luther  as  the  hero.  The  latter  makes  Calvin  and 
the  Hugenots  and  Genevan  customs  and  manners  live 
again. 


Church  History.  41 

LESSON  VII 

The   Reformed   Church    in   Germany   and   Other   Lands 

The  rapid  growth  of  the  Reformed  Church,  the  rising  popularity 
of  the  Heidelberg  Catechism,  and  the  triumph 
of  Reformed  principles  form  a  fascinating 
story.  Only  an  incomplete  outline  can  be  pre- 
sented here. 

I.     THE   REFORIVIED  CHURCH   IN  GERIVIANY. 

The  first  Reformed  church  in  Germany  was  organized  at 
Emden  in  1526.  After  the  conference  at  Marburg  (1529),  Re- 
formed doctrines  spread  rapidly.  John  a  Lasco,  a  Polish  noble- 
man, "a  soul  without  a  stain,"  established  the  Reformed  Church 
in  East  Friesland  of  which  Emden  was  the  capital.  He  organized 
an  ecclesiastical  body  similar  to  a  Synod,  known  as  a  Coetus, 
in  1544.  This  Coetus  still  exists,  the  oldest  Reformed  organiza- 
tion in  Germany. 

It  was  in  the  Palatinate,  however,  that  the  Reformed  Church 
won  its  greatest  victory.  The  Palatinate  at  that  time  was  a 
rich  and  beautiful  district  of  which  Heidelberg  was  the  capital. 
Its  ruler,  called  "Elector,"  was  one  of  the  seven  German  princes 
who  elected  the  German  emperors.  When  Elector  Frederick  III, 
known  also  as  the  Pious,  came  to  the  throne  of  the  Palatinate 
in  1559,  he  found  in  his  realm  High-Lutherans  and  Low- 
Lutherans,  Zwinglians  and  Calvinists  engaged  in  bitter,  theo- 
logical warfare. 

The  elector  was  a  Lutheran,  but,  forced  to  take  sides  in 
the  controversy  that  was  raging,  after  mature  study,  he  decided 
for  the  Reformed  doctrine.  Desiring  a  brief  manual  of  Reformed 
doctrine  for  the  instruction  of  the  people,  Frederick  appointed 
a  commission  to  draw  up  such  a  confession  of  faith. 

The  two  chief  members  of  this  commission  were  Zacharias 
Ursinus,  a  brilliant  young  theological  professor,  and  Caspar 
Olevianus,  a  fervent  and  eloquent  young  preacher  and  professor. 
The  work  was  largely  done  by  these  two.     To  Ursinus,  we  owe 


42  Outline  Studiks  ox  thk  CiirRCH. 

the  profound  contents  of  the  answers;  to  Olevianus,  the  winsome 
felicities  of  expression  which  distinguished  the  Heidelberg  Cate- 
chism. After  adoption  by  a  Synod  held  at  Heidelberg,  the  cate- 
chism was  published  January  19,  1583.  It  sprang  into  instant 
popularity,  four  editions  being  exhausted  the  first  year. 

The  great  popularity  of  the  catechism  and  the  rapid  spread 
of  the  Reformed  church  aroused  the  violent  opposition  of  the 
Lutheran  and  Catholic  princes  of  Germany.  At  that  time  only 
the  Lutheran  and  Catholic  churches  were  recognized  by  the  Ger- 
man law;  the  Reformed  church  had  no  legal  standing  whatever. 

Frederick  was  summoned  before  a  Diet  of  the  Empire  held 
at  Augsburg  in  1566  to  answer  for  his  innovation  in  publishing 
a  new  catechism.  The  Lutheran  and  Catholic  princes  and  prel- 
ates joined  hands  in  accusing  him  before  the  emperor  and  at- 
tempting to  suppress  his  catechism.  It  was  even  rumored  that 
Frederick  would  be  put  to  death  or  at  least  deposed  as  elector. 
But  his  defense  before  the  Diet  was  so  bold  and  fearless,  that, 
at  its  conclusion,  the  Elector  August  of  Saxony  approached,  and 
patting  Frederick  on  the  back,  said:  "Fritz'  you  are  more  pious 
than  all  of  us  together."  So  able  was  this  defence  that  although 
the  emperor  also  declared  that  "such  vermin  should  be  de- 
stroyed," no  action  against  Frederick  was  taken  by  the  Diet, 
and  the  Heidelberg  Catechism  was  not  forbidden  to  be  used. 

The  Reformed  church  now  grew  rapidly.  During  the  next  half 
century,  the  Rhine  provinces  of  Germany  and  eastward  through 
Hesse-Cassel,  Lippe,  Anhalt,  and  as  far  as  Berlin,  became  Re- 
formed. In  1613,  the  elector  of  Brandenburg,  the  ancestor  of  the 
present  German  emperor,  left  the  Lutheran  church  for  the  Re- 
formed. At  that  date  about  one-fifth  of  all  Germany  adhered 
to  the  Reformed  church. 

In  spite  of  these  victories,  the  Reformed  church  had  as  yet  ac- 
quired no  legal  standing.  Before  this  was  secured,  the  terrible 
Thirty-years  War  devastated  Germany  (1616-1648).  Two-thirds  of 
the  inhabitants  perished  by  the  war,  famine  and  pestilence.  The 
Reformed  sections  and  especially  the  Palatinate  bore  the  brunt 
of  this  assault.  "When  the  enemy  had  marched  through,  it 
looked  as  if  Lucifer  or  Beelzebub  had  passed  by."  The  treaty  of 
Westphalia  which  ended  the  war  gave  to  the  Reformed  Church 
full  legal  rights  and  protection.     At  once  she  sprang  into  new  life. 


Chubch  History.  48 

The  Palatinate,  however,  was  doomed  to  still  more  suffering. 
In  1685,  the  Reformed  line  of  electors  died  out.  The  new  line 
was  Catholic,  and  persecutions  immediately  began.  Moreover, 
Louis  XIV  of  France  now  claimed  the  territory.  The  French 
wars  (1688-1695)  were  conducted  with  unheard-of  barbarity. 
Twelve  hundred  villages  were  destroyed,  forty  thousand  were 
rendered  homeless,  and  half  a  million  people  made  destitute. 
During  the  following  century,  the  Catholic  electors  heaped  every 
manner  of  indignity  and  persecution  upon  the  Reformed  people; 
churches  were  seized,  and  the  ministers  driven  out.  Thousands 
fled  to  America.  The  majority  settled  in  eastern  Pennsylvania 
and  became  the  ancestors  of  the  Pennsylvania  Germans. 

In  1817,  the  Reformed  and  Lutheran  churches  of  Prussia  were 
united  by  the  government  into  one  organization  with  a  common 
church  government  and  a  common  liturgy.  Though  knov.ai  as 
the  "United  Protestant  Evangelical  Church,"  it  really  contains 
three  diverse  elements,  namely:  those  still  considering  them- 
selves Reformed,  those  still  Lutherans,  and  those  who  have  en- 
tirely lost  the  distinctive  doctrines  of  either  church  and  are 
truly  united.  Many  of  the  smaller  German  states  followed  the 
example  of  Prussia  and  also  organized  such  "united"  Protestant 
churches. 

II.     THE     REFORMED     CHURCH     IN     LANDS     BEYOND    GER- 
MANY. 

(a)  The  Waldenses.  The  many  points  of  agreement  between 
the  Waldensian  and  Reformed  doctrine  led  to  an  early  desire 
for  union.  A  Waldensian  Synod  held  at  Angrogna  (1532)  ac- 
cepted the  Reformed  doctrine,  and  the  Waldenses  became  a  part 
of  the  Reformed  Church.  A  strong  minority,  however,  kept  up 
the  old  organization.  The  Waldenses  and  the  Waldensian  Re- 
formed were  fiendishly  persecuted  by  the  Roman  Church,  and 
civil  and  religious  liberty  was  not  granted  them  until  1848. 

(b)  The  Huguenots.  The  Reformed  people  of  France  were 
known  as  Huguenots.  Geneva  under  John  Calvin  became  a 
training  school  for  French  pastors  and  evangelists.  Before  Cal- 
vin's death,  there  were  in  France  two  thousand  congregations 
and  preaching  places.  Amid  constant  persecutions,  the  church 
increased.    Many  of  the  nobility,  notably  Coligny,  Grand  Admiral 


44  Outline  Studies  on  the  Church. 

of  France,  the  prince  of  Conde,  and  Henry  of  Navarre  (later 
King  Henry  IV  of  France)  joined  the  Reformed  movement. 

Civil  wars  ensued.  Roman  Catholic  hatred  and  the  political 
ambitions  of  their  leaders  finally  culminated  in  the  Bloody 
Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  (1572).  It  is  estimated  that  at 
least  fifty  thousand  Huguenots  were  murdered.  The  pope  or- 
dered a  Te  Deum  to  be  sung,  and  a  special  medal  of  commemora- 
tion to  be  struck  off  when  he  received  the  welcome  news. 

Peace  came  with  the  accession  of  Henry  IV  to  the  throne. 
He  issued  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (1598),  granting  to  Protestants 
equal  civil  rights,  and  almost  complete  religious  freedom.  Nearly 
a  century  later,  Louis  XIV  revoked  this  edict.  Protestants  were 
then  ruthlessly  persecuted  and  their  churches  suppressed.  Half 
a  million  of  the  inhabitants  fled  to  other  countries.  Many  of 
these  were  the  most  moral,  the  most  intelligent  and  the  most 
skillful  industrially  in  France.  Thousands  came  to  America. 
Soutii  Carolina  especially  received  many  of  them.  The  loss  of 
all  these  citizens  was  a  stunning  blow  to  the  moral  progress  and 
manufacturing  industries  of  France. 

(c)  Holland.  The  Reformation  early  made  great  progress 
among  the  liberty  loving  Dutch.  Before  Calvin's  death  a  creed 
and  a  church  government  like  that  of  Geneva  had  been  adopted, 
and  the  Heidelberg  Catechism  became  the  standard  of  faith. 
Philip  II  of  Spain,  a  bigoted  Catholic,  became  ruler  of  the  Neth- 
erlands in  1555.  Declaring  that  he  would  rather  have  no  sub- 
jects than  heretics,  he  ordered  the  Duke  of  Alva  to  stamp  them 
out. 

In  seven  years  (1567-1573),  Alva,  "the  hangman  of  the  Neth- 
erlands," boasted  of  causing  the  execution  of  eighteen  thousand 
citizens.  One  hundred  thousand  homes  stood  desolate.  The 
Dutch  wars  for  political  and  religious  liberty  lasted  forty  years, 
(1568-1609),  and  are  unsurpassed  in  history  for  the  valor  dis- 
played, the  sacrifices  endured,  and  the  military  genius  mani- 
fested. William,  Prince  of  Orange,  was  the  most  eminent  com- 
mander during  the  early  part  of  the  struggle;  but,  he  was  cut 
down  in  1584  by  an  assassin,  who  was  lured  on  by  the  price  of 
25,000  crowns  which  the  Spanish  king  had  put  on  the  head  of 
the  prince. 

William's  son,  Maurice,  was  elected  to  his  father's  place,  and 


Church  History.  45 

by  brilliant  military  leadership  achieved  the  independence  of  the 
Netherlands,  and  made  it  the  foremost  naval  power  in  Europe. 
Holland  then  became  the  refuge  of  the  persecuted  and  distressed. 
Mennonites,  the  Pilgrim  Fathers,  and  the  Palatinates  were  re- 
ceived and  cared  for.  Holland  became  and  has  remained  the 
most  Reformed  country  of  Europe. 

(d)  Scotland.  Reformed  doctrines  were  early  introduced 
into  Scotland,  but  were  violently  opposed  by  the  Roman  church. 
John  Knox  (1513-1572)  was  the  greatest  of  the  Scotch  Reformers. 
He  was  educated  for  the  Catholic  priesthood,  but  converted  to 
Protestantism.  (1545.)  His  violent  denunciations  of  the  papacy 
resulted  in  persecution  and  imprisonment.  He  was  in  succession 
a  galley  slave,  a  chaplain  to  Edward  VI  of  England,  a  pupil  of 
John  Calvin,  and  the  heroic  Reformer  of  Scotland  who  "never 
feared  the  face  of  man." 

A  Reformed  Church  was  established  by  the  Scottish  parlia- 
ment (1560),  a  new  church  constitution  like  that  of  Geneva  was 
adopted,  a  Reformed  confession  of  faith  was  formulated,  and 
Calvin's  Catechism  as  well  as  the  Heidelberg  were  translated 
and  used.  Knox  labored  fearlessly  and  incessantly,  declaring 
on  a  certain  occasion,  "In  Twenty-four  hours,  I  have  not  four 
free,  to  natural  rest  and  ease  for  this  wicked  carcass."  The 
Reformed  Church  of  Scotland  later  took  the  name  of  Pres- 
byterian. 

(e)  England.  The  Reformed  Church  of  England  was  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  Reformation  movement  on  the  conti- 
nent. Under  Edward  VI,  the  church  was  genuinely  reformed. 
The  Episcopalian  form  of  government  was  retained,  also  as  much 
of  the  ancient  ritual  as  consistent  with  Reformed  doctrine,  but 
the  creed  was  drawn  from  Calvanistic  and  Lutheran  sources. 
Thomas  Cranmer  was  the  leading  English  Reformer,  though  he 
drew  to  his  assistance  numerous  Reformed  and  Lutheran  theo- 
logians. 

(f)  Poland,  Bohemia,  Hungary.  By  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  these  countries  had  large  Protestant  populations.  The 
Reformation  movement  here  was  weakened  unfortunately  by 
dissensions  between  the  Reformed,  the  Lutherans,  and  the 
Hussites. 


46  Outline  Studies  on  the  Church. 

III.— THE    REFORMED   CHURCH    TODAY. 

At  the  present  time,  the  Reformed  Church  is  established  by- 
law in  Switzerland,  Holland,  and  Scotland.  It  is  strong  in 
France,  Poland,  Austro-Hungary,  the  German  parts  of  Russia 
and  among  the  Boers  of  South  Africa. 

TEST    QUESTIONS 

1.  Where  was  the  first  Reformed  Church  and  Synod  organized 

in  Germany? 

2.  What  can  you  tell  about  Frederick  III? 

3.  Why  was  the  Heidelberg  Catechism  written  and  by  whom? 

4.  How  was  it  written? 

5.  Why  did  the  Elector  have  to  defend  himself? 

6.  In  what  parts  of  Germany  did  the  Reformed  Church  prevail? 

7.  How  did  the  Reformed  sections  of  Germany  suffer? 

8.  How  were  the  Huguenots  suppressed? 

9.  Tell  the  story  of  the  Dutch  Reformed? 

10.  What  facts  can  you  give  of  Knox's  life? 

11.  W^ho  was  the  chief  English  Reformer? 

SUGGESTED  TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  RESEARCH 

1.  Life  of  John  a  Lasco. 

2.  "Electors"  in  the  old  German  empire. 

3.  Frederick  Ill's  defense  before  the  diet  of  Augsburg. 

4.  Henry  IV  of  France. 

5.  Edict  of  Nantes. 

6.  William  of  Orange,  and  his  son,  Maurice. 

7.  The  Duke  of  Alva. 

8.  John  Knox. 

9.  Incidents  in  Dutch  war  of  Independence. 

E.  G. — Naval  battle  among  orchards  and  chimney 
stacks  (Siege  of  Leyden,  1572).  Answer  of  Burgomaster 
Van  der  Werf  (Siege  of  Leyden).  The  Battle  on  Skates 
(Amsterdam,  1572).  Spanish  Perfidy  (Naarden,  1572). 
Siege  of  Haarlem   (1572-1573). 

See  J.  L.  Motley:   "Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic." 


Church  History.  47 

THE  REFORMED  CHURCH  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES 

LESSON  VIII 

First  Period.     From  the  Earliest  Immigration  to  the 
Independence  of  the  Coetiis.   1793. 

The  earliest  attempts  to  establish  the  Reformed  Church  in 
America  were  made  by  the  Huguenots  and  the 
Dutch.  As  early  as  1555,  a  colony  was  planted 
on  the  Island  of  Vlllegagnon  in  the  Bay  of  Rio 
Janeiro,  but  through  the  perfidy  of  the  leader, 
Villegagnon,  the  project  was  a  failure. 

The  second  attempt  to  find  a  place  of  refuge  for  the  perse- 
cuted Huguenots  was  made  by  that  staunch  Reformed  leader, 
John  Ribaut,  who  founded  a  colony  near  Beaufort,  South  Caro- 
lina (1562).  After  various  vicissitudes,  this  colony  was  wiped 
out  by  the  Spaniards. 

The  third  attempt  was  made  by  the  Dutch  at  Pernambuco 
in  Brazil  (1637).  A  flourishing  colony  was  established  and  zeal- 
ous missionary  work  was  done  among  the  Indians.  Twenty 
years  later  it  was  completely  destroyed  by  the  Portuguese. 

These  colonies  had  existed  long  enough,  however,  to  give 
to  the  Reformed  the  distinction  of  holding  the  first  Protestant 
service  in  America,  celebrating  the  first  communion,  furnishing 
the  first  missionaries  to  the  Indians,  having  the  first  martyrs, 
translating  the  first  catechism  (the  Heidelberg)  into  an  Indian 
dialect,  and  establishing  the  first  church  organizations. 

I.  PREPARATION  FOR  THE  COETUS. 

Reformed  immigrants  began  coming  during  the  seventeenth 
century.  New  Amsterdam  (New  York)  was  settled  by  the  Dutch 
in  1614,  but  twelve  years  later  there  were  only  about  two  hun- 
dred inhabitants.  The  first  settlers  were  all  Reformed.  In- 
formal religious  services  had  been  conducted  for  several  years 
by  sick-consolers,  (Kranken  Besoeckers),  in  the  loft  over  the 
horse-mill,  before  a  regular  congregation  was  organized  in  1628. 
Peter  Minuit,  the  first  governor,  was  elected  as  one  of  the  elders. 


48  Outline  Studies  o.v  the  Church. 

This  congregation  was  the  first  Protestant  church  in  America, 
and  still  exists  as  the  Collegiate  Reformed  Church  of  New  York 
City. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  Reformed 
immigration  rapidly  increased.  Dutch  Palatines  and  Swiss  came 
In  large  numbers,  settling  at  first  principally  in  New  York,  Vir- 
ginia and  the  Carolinas.  Owing  to  greater  liberty  accorded  to 
settlers  in  Pennsylvania,  the  stream  of  German  immigration 
gradually  turned  thither.  This  exodus  from  their  native  land 
was  caused  by  religious  persecutions,  the  constant  menace  of 
war,  great  poverty,  and  the  lure  of  a  free  and  quiet  haven  in 
America. 

The  first  German  Reformed  minister  in  Pennsylvania  was 
Rev.  Samuel  Guldin,  a  Swiss,  who  arrived  in  1710.  Though  he 
organized  no  churches,  he  labored  with  earnest  evangelistic 
zeal,  preaching  and  administering  the  sacraments  in  houses, 
barns,  or  in  the  open  air.  For  thirty-five  years,  he  thus  per- 
formed a  most  valuable  preparatory  work. 

The  first  German  Reformed  Church  organized  in  America 
seems  to  have  been  at  Germania  Ford,  on  the  Rapidan,  in  Vir- 
ginia. It  was  founded  by  Rev.  John  Henry  Haeger,  in  1714. 
A  French  traveler  who  visited  the  village  in  1715  speaks  of  at- 
tending a  service  "which  we  did  not  understand,  but  they  seemed 
to  be  very  devout,  and  sang  the  Psalms  very  well." 

The  honor  of  being  the  founder  of  our  church  in  America 
belongs  to  John  Philip  Boehm.  He  was  a  pious  German  school- 
master, who  had  been  driven  out  of  the  Palatinate  by  persecu- 
tions, and  settled  near  Philadelphia.  The  Reformed  people  of 
Falkner  Swamp,  Skippach  and  Whitemarsh  (north  of  Philadel- 
phia) begged  him  to  become  their  pastor,  and  he  consented  even 
though  he  had  not  been  ordained.  He  drew  up  a  congregational 
constitution  which  was  accepted  by  the  people  and  the  three 
congregations  were  regularly  organized  in  1725  with  deacons 
and  elders  according  to  the  Reformed  usage. 

Two  years  later,  Conestoga  and  Tulpehocken  were  organized, 
and  still  later  Philadelphia  and  Oley  accepted  his  constitu- 
tion; all  being  served  by  Boehm.  His  pastoral  charge  thus 
included  roughly  the  district  lying  between  Philadelphia,  Allen- 
town   and    Lancaster.     With  incessant  labor,   Boehm   ministered 


Church  History.  49 

to  the  spiritual  needs  of  the  people,  traveling  on  an  average  of 
104  miles  a  month  to  his  various  congregations,  and  support- 
ing himself  almost  entirely  by  farming;  for  his  salary  amounted 
to  the  munificent  sum  of  $24.00  a  year.* 

In  1727,  Rev.  George  Michael  Weiss  arrived  in  Philadelphia 
with  a  colony  of  four  hundred  Germans,  and  organized  the  first 
Reformed  church  there.  Learning  that  Boehm  was  serving  as 
a  minister  without  having  been  ordained,  Weiss  imperiously 
called  him  to  account.  The  trouble  thus  stirred  up,  was  happily 
settled  two  years  later  when  Boehm  was  ordained  by  the  au- 
thority of  the  Classis  of  Amsterdam,  and  Weiss  publicly  apolo- 
gized for  his  hastiness. 

Boehm  and  Weiss  with  their  congregations  then  placed  them- 
selves under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Reformed  Church  of  Holland. 
This  official  connection  between  the  German  and  the  Dutch 
Reformed  church  lasted  until  1792.  In  1731,  Weiss  went  to 
New  York  to  labor  among  the  Germans  there,  and  for  fifteen 
years,  Boehm  was  left  almost  alone  to  labor  among  the  Re- 
formed of  Pennsylvania.  During  these  years,  the  church  passed 
through  severe  storms.  The  people  were  without  proper  re- 
ligious instruction,  hence  some  fell  into  irreligion,  others  drifted 
into  fanaticism  and  religious  vagaries. 

The  arrival  of  Count  Zinzendorf,  the  noted  Moravian  bishop. 
in  1741,  brought  matters  to  a  crises.  His  aim  was  to  gather 
the  Reformed,  Lutheran,  Moravian,  Mennonites,  etc.,  into  one 
common  organization,  to  be  known  as  "Tiie  Congregation  of 
God  in  the  Spirit."  Under  this  plan  each  congregation  would 
retain  its  denominational  name  and  character,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  enter  into  this  higher  form  of  church  unity. 

*  When  Boehm  l)egan  his  hiliors,  Indians  were  still  numerous,  there 
were  but  few  roads,  generally  only  tortuous  paths  led  through  the 
forests  and  wilderness.  For  miles  no  settler  might  be  found.  Amidst 
such  conditions,  he  labored  on.  His  spirit  is  seen  from  a  letter  written 
in  1734,  in  which  he  says  that  ministers  are  "needed  to  feed  the  poor 
sheep  which  live  on  the  borders  of  the  wilderness,  and  who  thirst  to 
hear  God's  Word  as  the  dry  earth  thirsts  for  water.  Some  have  at 
various  times  come  a  distance  of  25-30  miles  and  brought  little  children 
for  baptism.  But  it  was  impossible  for  old  persons  and  weak,  sick 
women  to  make  such  a  journey.  It  is,  therefore,  not  to  be  wondered 
at  that  one's  heart  breaks,  and  one's  eyes  are  full  of  tetirs  at  remem- 
bering this." 


50  Outline  Studies  on  the  Church. 

Some  of  the  Reformed  congregations  were  carried  away  by 
this  ideal.  But  when  Zinzendorf  presumed,  without  any  au- 
thority, to  ordain  ministers  for  the  Reformed  congregations,  and 
appointed  one  of  these  (Bechtel)  to  draw  up  a  new  catechism** 
for  their  instruction,  and  also  made  Bechtel  "inspector"  of  the 
Reformed  congregations,  then  suddenly,  the  dormant  Reformed 
consciousness  sprang  into  life. 

Boehm  and  the  aged  Guldin  published  letters  and  pamphlets 
of  warning  against  the  movement.  The  ensuing  controversy  be- 
came very  bitter.  The  Reformed  people  withdrew  from  the 
union,  Zinzendorf's  ecclesiastical  scheme  went  to  pieces,  and 
the  historic  continuity  of  the  Reformed  Church  was  preserved. 

II.     THE   HISTORY  OF  THE  COETUS. 

Rev.  Michael  Schlatter,  a  Swiss  by  birth,  was  commissioned 
by  the  Reformed  Church  of  Holland  in  1746  to  go  to  America 
and  to  organize  the  scattered  congregations  there.  Schlatter 
was  a  man  of  great  organizing  ability  and  tireless  activity.  The 
day  after  arriving  in  Philadelphia,  he  began  his  labors,  and  for 
eight  years  traveled  throughout  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  and 
Maryland,  seeking  out  the  Reformed  people,  often  preaching 
daily,  organizing  congregations,  and  administering  the  sacra- 
ments. He  traveled  in  all  about  8000  miles;  sometimes  as  high 
as  80  miles  a  day  on  horseback. 

About  a  year  after  Schlatter's  arrival,  on  Sept.  29,  1747,  a 
Coetus  was  organized  at  Philadelphia  with  four  ministers 
(Boehm,  Weiss,  Rieger,  Schlatter)  and  twelve  congregations. 
This  Coetirs  was  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Reformed  Church 
of  Holland.  At  the  second  meeting  of  the  Coetus  (1748),  the 
Heidelberg  Catechism  and  the  Canons  of  Dort  were  adopted 
as  its  confession  of  faith;  and  several  new  ministers  became 
members  of  the  Coetus. 

The  Reformed  church  of  Holland  contributed  considerable 
sums  of  money  annually,  and  sent  over  new  ministers.  As  the 
result  of  a  visit  made  to  the  old  country  by  Schlatter  in  H")!, 
the  interest  of  the  mother  church  was  greatly  increased,  and 
he  returned  the  following  year  with  money  and  bibles  that  had 

**in  this  catechism  the  Apostles'  Creed,  the  Ten  Coininaiidiuents,  the 
Lord's  prayer  aiul  the  Sacraments  were  omitted. 


CuuRtH  History.  51 

been  contributed,  and,  best  of  all,  with  six  young  ministers 
(Otterbein,  Stoy,  Waldschmidt,  Frankenfeld,  Wissler  and  Rubel). 

The  interest  in  the  Reformed  churches  of  Pennsylvania 
spread  even  to  England  and  Scotland,  and  $20,000  were  con- 
tributed to  establish  charity  (free  English)  schools  among  them, 
and  Schlatter  was  induced  to  become  the  first  superintendent. 
This  well  meant  plan  proved  unfortunate  for  Schlatter.  Some 
of  the  Germans  thought  it  a  scheme  to  rob  them  of  their  mother 
tongue,  others  were  incensed  because  they  were  considered 
objects  of  charity  and  had  been  represented  as  steeped  in 
ignorance. 

Schlatter  was  severely  criticized,  became  very  unpopular, 
being  irritated  withdrew  from  the  Coetus  in  1755.  However,  he 
remained  superintendent  of  the  charity  schools  until  these  dis- 
banded in  1763.  He  also  served  many  years  as  chaplain  in 
the  British  army,  but  when  the  Revolutionary  War  broke  out 
his  lot  was  cast  in  with  the  patriots.  As  a  consequence,  his 
home  was  plundered  and  he  was  imprisoned.  After  leaving  the 
Coetus,  he  refused  to  attend  another  meeting  or  again  to  serve 
a  Reformed  Church.     His  death  did  not  occur  until  1790. 

With  the  exception  of  the  first  years,  the  work  of  the  Coetus 
was  conducted  in  perfect  harmony.  There  was  a  steady  growth 
in  the  number  of  ministers,  congregations  and  members. 

The  two  most  important  events  were  the  religious  awakening 
in  Maryland  and  the  Revolutionary  War.  In  Maryland,  Re- 
formed ministers  were  scarce  and  preaching  was  seldom  heard; 
hence  the  ministers  there  used  to  make  extensive  missionary 
trips  through  the  outlying  districts.  From  this  dearth  of  min- 
isters sprang  the  custom  of  holding  large  gatherings  for  re- 
ligious services  which  brought  the  people  together  from  long 
distances.  From  1770  until  stopped  by  the  Revolutionary  War, 
such  meetings  were  held  at  Antietam. 

These  meetings  were  entirely  under  the  supervision  of  Re- 
formed ministers.  Class  leaders  were  appointed  in  the  con- 
gregations to  gather  the  more  spiritually  minded  together  in 
weekly  meetings  for  prayer  and  Bible  study.  Rev.  Wm.  Otter- 
bein especially  distinguished  himself  for  his  missionary  and 
evangelistic  zeal. 

The  Revolutionary  War  was  a  trying  crisis  in  church  affairs. 


52  Outline  Stcdies  ox  the  Church. 

Congregations  were  overrun  by  hostile  armies,  some  Coetus 
meetings  had  to  be  omitted,  ministers'  salaries  could  not  be 
paid,  and  Indian  troubles  broke  out  along  the  borders.  A  few 
of  the  Germans  sympathized  with  the  English,  the  vast  majority, 
however,  were  intensely  loyal  to  the  American  cause.  Among 
the  prominent  Reformed  of  the  war  were  Gen.  Nicholas  Herk- 
himer,  Gen.  Philip  Schuyler  and  Baron  von  Steuben,  the  drill- 
master  of  the  American  army.  The  ministers  of  the  Coetus 
were  loyal  to  the  American  cause  to  a  man. 

After  the  war,  "big  meetings,"  similar  to  the  Antietam  meet- 
ings, were  held  again.  But  now,  non-Reformed  tendencies  came 
in,  a  new  and  shallower  type  of  church  life  was  forming,  and 
the  Reformed  pastors  gradually  withdrew  with  the  exception  of 
Otterbein.  Though  Otterbein  remained  a  minister  of  the  Re- 
formed Church  till  his  death,  the  movement  fostered  by  him 
gradually  broke  away,  and  a  new  denomination  was  formed 
calling  itself  the  "United  Brethren  in  Christ." 

III.  THE  INDEPENDENCE  OF  THE  COETUS. 

As  time  went  on,  it  became  increasingly  difficult  to  obtain 
ministers  from  the  old  country.  Correspondence  between  the 
Coetus  and  the  Holland  Church  also  became  more  difficult  on 
account  of  the  difference  of  language.  Much  valuable  time  was 
lost  in  waiting  for  permission  to  ordain  ministers  who  had  been 
educated  here;  then  too,  all  cases  of  church  discipline  had  to 
be  approved  by  the  Holland  Church  before  they  were  finally 
effective.     Thus  arose  the  desire  for  independence. 

Finally  in  1791,  the  Coetus  asserted  its  right  to  ordain  its 
ministers  without  asking  for  authority  from  Holland.  The  fol- 
lowing year  a  committee  was  appointed  to  draw  up  a  synodical 
constitution.  With  the  adoption  of  this  constitution  in  1793, 
the  separation  of  the  two  church  bodies  was  complete. 

But  as  members  of  the  "Reformed  Church  in  the  United 
States,"  we  should  never  allow  ourselves  to  forget  that  we  owe 
a  great  debt  of  gratitude  to  the  Holland  church.  They  freely 
gave  nearly  $26,000  in  money  and  thirty-seven  ministers  to  the 
Coetus.  Fifty  ministers  were  connected  with  the  Coetus  during 
its  history,  and  besides  these,  fifty-four  other  ministers,  many 
of  whom  rendered  faithful  and  devoted  service,  were  working 
independently  of  the  Coetus  in  building  up  the  Reformed  Church. 


■  Church  History.  53 

TEST    QUESTIONS 

1.  What    three    early    attempts    were    made    to    establish    the 

Reformed  Church? 

2.  Where  was  the  first  Reformed  Church  in  the  United  States? 

3.  When  did  the  German  Reformed  immigrants  begin  coming, 

and  why? 

4.  Who  was  the  first  German  Reformed  minister?     Give  leading 

facts  of  his  life. 

5.  Where  was  the  first  German  Reformed  Church? 

6.  Who  was  the  founder  of  our  Church?     Give  facts. 

7.  Who  was  Michael  Weiss  and  what  did  he  do? 

8.  What  was  the  "Congregation  of  God  in  the  Spirit"? 

9.  Who  organized  our  Church?     Give  facts. 

10.  What  "standards  of  faith"  were  adopted? 

11.  What  were  the  Charity  schools? 

12.  What  was  the  origin  and  history  of  the  Antietam  meetings? 

13.  What  were  four  causes  leading  to  the  independence  of  the 

Synod? 

SUGGESTED    TOPICS    FOR    FURTHER    STUDY 

1.  The  meaning  of  the  term  "Coetus." 

2.  The  fate  of  the  charity  schools. 

3.  The  influence  of  the  Antietam  meetings. 

4.  The  "Big  Meetings"  after  the  war. 

5.  William  Otterbein  and  the  founding  of  the  United  Brethren 

Church. 

6.  The   contribution   of   Baron    Steuben   to   American   independ- 

ence. 

7.  Rev.  C.  D.  Weyberg  and  the  Hessian  Soldiers. 

8.  "The  Pioneers  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  the  United  States" 

by  Dr.  H.  J.  Ruetenik  gives  the  best  brief  account  (125  pp.) 
of  this  period. 


54  Outline  Studies  on  the  Church. 

LESSON  IX 

Second  Period.     From  the  Organization  of  the  Synod 
TO  THE  Present  Time.   1793-1915. 

First  Era.     Progress  Throurh  Difficulties. 
1793-1844. 

The  first  meeting  of  the  independent  Synod  was  held  in  Lan- 
caster, Pa.,  April  27,  1793.  A  new  sj'nodical 
constitution  was  adopted,  and  the  official  name 
chosen  was  "Synod  of  the  German  Reformed 
Church  in  the  United  States  of  America."  The 
Heidelberg  Catechism  retained  its  honored 
position  and  steps  were  taken  to  publish  a 
suitable  church  hymnal.  A  friendly  letter  of 
information  was  substituted  for  the  detailed 
reports  hitherto  submitted  to  the  Holland 
church.  The  new  synod  had  twenty-two  min- 
isters,* one  hundred  and  seventy-eight  con- 
gregations and  15,000  members.  The  majority 
of  the  congregations  were  located  in  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Maryland,  with  others  scattered 
throughout  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Virginia 
and  North  Carolina. 

This  period  may  be  divided  into  three  eras  or  stages  of 
progress. 

I.     PROGRESS   THROUGH    DIFFICULTIES. 

A.  Language.  Our  church  at  first  was  entirely  German. 
The  English  came  in  gradually,  though  bitterly  opposed  by  the 
Germans.  The  first  language  controversy  broke  out  in  the 
Philadelphia  congregation,  lasted  from  1804-1817,  and  resulted 
in  a  division  into  three  congregations.  Other  places  passed 
through   similar   experiences,   and   thousands   of   members   were 

*  This  number  did  not  inchide  all  the  German  Reformed  ministers 
in  America.  For  various  reasons,  many  preferred  to  remain  independent, 
and  would  not  unite  with  the  Synod.  Among  these  independent  minis- 
ters were  some  very  devoted  and  active  men. 


Church  History.  55 

lost  during  this  transition  period.  But  we  should  not  condemn 
those  early  congregations  too  severly.  The  people  loved  their 
mother  tongue,  and  the  ministers  with  few  exceptions  could 
not  preach  in  English.  Slowly  the  church  learned  that  the 
solution  of  the  problem  consisted  in  gradually  introducing  Eng- 
lish as  the  need  became  imperative. 

B.  Education  of  Ministers.  When  the  Synod  was  organ- 
ized one-third  of  the  congregations  were  vacant,  only  occasion- 
ally a  new  minister  came  from  the  old  country,  and  no  theo- 
logical seminary  existed  for  training  ministers.  Hence,  arose 
the  custom  for  ministers  of  ability  to  train  young  men  privately 
for  the  ministry.  Three  men  distinguished  themselves  especially 
in  this  work;  namely.  Rev.  F.  L.  Herman  at  Falkner  Swamp, 
Pa.,  Rev.  C.  L.  Becker  at  Baltimore  and  Rev.  S.  Helffenstein 
at  Philadelphia.  Sixty-one  ministers  were  trained  by  them;  but 
still  the  number  was  inadequate. 

C.  IN/lissionary  extension.  The  spread  of  the  church  was 
accompanied  with  great  difficulties.  It  was  all  hard  pioneer 
work.  Rev.  Jacob  Christman  is  thought  to  have  been  the  first 
Reformed  minister  in  Ohio.  He  organized  the  first  congrega- 
tion at  Springboro  in  1803. 

Rev.  John  Jacob  Larose,  a  truly  apostolic  man,  labored  zeal- 
ously from  1804-1823  in  Montgomery,  Warren  and  Highland 
counties,  also  in  Kentucky  and  Indiana,  and  organized  many 
churches.  Other  pastors  were  sent  out  and  in  1820  an  Ohio 
Classis  was  organized. 

Churches  had  also  multiplied  in  Virginia  and  North  Carolina, 
and  by  1819  the  Synod  numbered  seventy  ministers.  The  extent 
of  the  territory  covered  and  the  difficulties  of  travel  were  so 
great  that  in  1819  the  Synod  was  divided  into  eight  districts  or 
classes.  These  classes  then  elected  delegates  to  attend  the 
meetings  of  the  Synod  instead  of  requiring  the  attendance  of 
all  ministers  as  before. 

As  the  Synod  refused  to  grant  to  the  Classes  the  right  to 
ordain  their  own  ministers,  the  Ohio  Classis  organized  itself 
in  1824  into  an  independent  Synod  called  "The  German  Evan- 
gelical Reformed  Synod  of  Ohio."  It  was  organized  in  the  county 
court  house  at  New  Philadeljihia.     Eleven  ministers  representing 


56  Outline  Studies  on  the  Church. 

about  60  congregations  and  2,500  members  entered  into  the  new- 
Synod.  The  Heidelberg  Catechism  and  the  constitution  of  the 
mother  synod  were  adopted.  The  relations  between  the  two 
synods  remained  most  cordial  and  ministers  freely  passed  from 
the  one  to  the  other. 

D.  The  first  Theological  Seminary.  By  private  education, 
young  men  desiring  to  prepare  for  the  ministry  could  not  be 
trained  adequately,  neither  could  a  sufficient  number  of  minis- 
ters be  supplied.  Therefore  in  1820  a  movement  was  launched 
to  establish  a  theological  seminary.  Violent  opposition  to  the 
project  quickly  developed.  It  was  denounced  as  needless  ex- 
travagance. So  bitter  did  the  antagonists  become  that  a  number 
seceded  and  formed  a  "Free  Synod."  During  the  fifteen  years' 
existence  of  this  free  synod,  fifty-five  ministers  and  about  100 
congregations  were  connected  with  it.  In  1837,  at  its  own 
request,  the  Free  Synod  was  received  back  into  the  mother 
synod,  and  the  unfortunate  schism  was  healed. 

After  a  number  of  unsuccessful  attempts  had  been  made,  the 
first  seminary  was  finally  opened  at  Carlisle,  Pa.,  in  1825,  witt^ 
five  students,  and  Rev.  Lewis  Mayer  as  sole  professor.  The 
Seminary  was  later  removed  to  York  (1829-1837);  then  to 
Mercersburg,  (1837-1871);  finally  to  Lancaster  in  1871,  where 
Franklin  and  Marshall  College,  the  oldest  educational  institu- 
tion of  the  Reformed  Church  had  been  already  established. 
The  most  noted  men  connected  with  the  seminary  during  the 
first  quarter  of  a  century  of  its  history  were  Doctors  Lewis 
Mayer,  F.  A.  Ranch,  J.  W.  Nevin  and  Philip  Schaff. 

E.  Church  Life.  Parochial  schools  and  catechetical  instruc- 
tion were  faithfully  maintained  from  the  beginning.  The 
Heidelberg  Catechism  was  generally  used,  though  a  number  of 
adaptations  of  the  Heidelberg,  and  even  private  catechisms,  were 
also  allowed.  In  1806,  the  first  Sunday  School  was  organized 
in  the  First  Reformed  Church  at  Philadelphia.  Through  fear 
that  the  parochial  schools  and  catechetical  instructions  might 
be  injured  or  even  driven  out,  the  Sunday  Schools  were  at  first 
vigorously  opposed.  They  won  their  way,  however,  and  by 
1825  Sundays  Schools  were  found  in  nearly  all  the  larger  towns 
and  villages. 

From  about  1820  on,  a  great  wave  of  revivalism  swept  over 


Church  History.  57 

the  American  churches.  This  movement  profoundly  affected 
the  Reformed  Church  also.  Some  Reformed  pastors  enthusias- 
tically adopted  "new  measures"  as  they  were  called,  such  as, 
meetings  for  prayer  and  testimony,  evangelistic  services  and 
the  "mourner's  bench."  Revival  services  became  common  in 
all  sections  of  the  church,  though  noisy  demonstrations  and 
fanaticism  were  condemned.  The  climax  of  this  movement  was 
reached  in  1843.  During  that  year,  3,476  additions  were  reported 
in  Pennsylvania,  and  1,536  in  Ohio  as  a  result  of  revival  meet- 
ings. But  dangerous  abuses  began  to  crop  out.  In  some  sec- 
tions the  catechetical  method  was  dropped  or  depreciated,  and 
fanatical  "new  measures"  substituted. 

In  this  crisis  Dr.  J.  W.  Nevin  published  a  little  book  (1843) 
entitled  "The  Anxious  Bench."  It  warned  the  church  against 
spurious  revivals  and  reliance  upon  outward  mechanical  forms. 
The  book  created  a  sensation,  and  virulent  discussions  ensued  in 
other  denominations,  even  more  than  in  the  Reformed.  Within 
the  Reformed  Church,  it  caused  a  reaction  to  set  in  against  spe- 
cial evangelistic  services  and  they  steadily  decreased  except  in 
the  Ohio  Synod.  This  has  been  a  great  loss  to  our  denomination. 
The  conviction  is  growing  in  the  Reformed  church  that  the  useful 
and  usable  features  of  these  evangelistic  services  should  have 
been  retained,  and  only  the  spurious  and  fanatical  elements 
eliminated. 

During  this  era  the  public  worship  of  the  sanctuary  was 
entirely  free,  and  was  arranged  according  to  the  judgment  of 
each  individual  pastor.  For  special  services,  such  as  the  Lord's 
Supper,  Baptism,  Confirmation,  marriage  and  ordination,  liturgi- 
cal forms,  taken  principally  from  the  Palatinate  Liturgy,  were 
used. 

The  religious  awakening  following  1820  also  brought  about  re- 
newed activities  along  other  lines.  The  first  church  paper,  the 
"Magazine  of  the  German  Reformed  Church,"  now  "The  Messen- 
ger," was  founded  in  1828.  In  1837,  the  first  German  Church 
paper,  now  "Die  Kirchenzeitung,"  was  founded.  The  home  mis- 
sionary w-ork  was  directed  at  first  by  a  Missionary  Committee  of 
the  Synod,  and  from  1832  on  by  a  Board  of  INIissions.  A  Board  of 
Foreign  Missions  was  created  in  1838  and  worked  in  conjunction 
with  the  "American  Board  of  Foreign  Missions."     This  arrange- 


58  Outline  Studies  on  the  Chubch. 

ment  continued  until  1865,  when  our  church  withdrew.  Rev 
Benjamin  Schneider,  D.D.,  a  son  of  the  Reformed  Church, 
became  our  first  representative  on  the  foreign  field.  He  labored 
with  great  success  at  Aintab,  in  Turkey. 

TEST    QUESTIONS 

1.  Mention  four  important  actions  of  the  first  synod  meeting. 

2.  What  were  the  causes,  the  injury  and  the  manner  of  settle- 

ment of  the  language  question? 

3.  How  were  the  first  ministers  trained? 

4.  Who  were  the  pioneer  ministers  of  Ohio? 

5.  Why  and  where  was  the  Ohio  Synod  organized? 

6.  Describe  the  early  history  of  the  first  seminary. 

7.  How   were   the  youth   trained   at   first?     Why   were   Sunday 

Schools   opposed? 

8.  What  was  meant  by  "new  measures"?     Their  result?     How 

set  aside? 

9.  How  were  the  regular  and  special  services  conducted? 

10.  Which  were  the  first  church  papers? 

11.  How  were  missionary  operations  at  home  and   abroad   con- 

ducted at  first? 

12.  Who   was   our   first   foreign   missionary?      Give   some   facts 

of  his  life. 

SUGGESTED  TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  INVESTIGATION 

1.  The  transition  from  German  to  English. 

2.  Early  private  theological  seminaries. 

3.  Reasons  for  organizing  the  Ohio  Synod. 

4.  Revivals  in  the  Reformed  Church. 

5.  Nevin's  "The  Anxious  Bench."     His  chief  arguments  against 

"New  Measures." 

6.  Sketch  of  Rev.  Benjamin  Schneider's  life. 

7.  Read   the   "Life   of   Rev.   Benjamin    Schneider,   D.D."   by   Dr. 

James  I.  Good,  76  pp.  Dr.  Good's  "History  of  the  Re- 
formed Church  in  the  United  States  in  the  Nineteenth 
Century"  is  invaluable  for  this  period. 


Church  History.  59 

LESSON   X 

Second  Era.     Progress  Through  Controversies. 

(1844-1878.) 

This  era  is  remarkable  on  account  of  two  great  theological 
controversies,  a  rapid  missionary  extension 
and  successful  efforts  looking  towards  the 
complete  union  of  antagonistic  parties. 

Theological  Controversies.  The  most  notable  feature  of  the 
early  part  of  this  period  was  a  theological  and  liturgical  con^ 
troversy  between  the  adherents  of  the  Mercersburg  Theology 
and  the  Old  Reformed.  The  former  founded  by  Rev.  J.  W. 
Nevin,  D.D.,  and  Philip  Schaff,  D.D.,  emphasized  the  objective, 
especially  in  regard  to  the  sacraments  and  ordination.  In  con- 
nection with  this  movement,  the  Provisional  liturgy  was  pub- 
lished in  1857  and  the  Order  of  Worship  in  1866,  (both  high 
church)  and  the  Western  Liturgy  (low  church),  in  1869. 

During  this  controversy  Ursinus  College  was  founded  by  low 
churchmen  in  1869  and  its  theological  department  in  1870. 
Finally  in  1878  General  Synod  appointed  a  Peace  Commission 
which  drew  up  a  new  liturgy,  the  Directory  of  Worship,  which 
was  adopted  by  General  Synod  of  1887.  Of  this  controversy. 
Rev.  Prof.  J.  H.  Dubbs  says,  "We  have  no  desire  to  extenuate 
the  faults  of  the  Mercersburg  movement,  nor  to  undervalue 
the  losses  which  the  church  was  made  to  suffer."  To  this  the 
Peace  Commission  adds,  "we  believe  that  this  theological  con- 
test resulted  in  bringing  the  church  to  a  deeper  apprehension 
of  the  truth." 

During  the  time  these  controversies  threatened  to  disrupt 
the  church,  other  movements  were  at  work  making  for  union. 

A.  The  Tercentenary  Celebration  in  1863.  For  several  years, 
preparations  had  been  in  progress  to  fittingly  observe  the  three 
hundredth  anniversary  of  the  publishing  of  the  Heidelberg  Cate- 
chism. Historical  services  were  held  throughout  the  church. 
The   climax   was   reached   in   a   great   Tercentenary   convention 


60  Outline  Studies  on  the  Chukch. 

which  was  held  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  with  500  delegates  present 
from  all  sections  of  the  church. 

Papers  and  addresses  by  eminent  clergymen  of  both  Europe 
and  America  were  heard.  These  were  later  published  in  a  fine 
memorial  volume  entitled  "The  Tercentenary  Monument."  The 
convention  lasted  for  an  entire  week  and  created  much  en- 
thusiasm. Freewill  offerings  amounting  to  $108,125  were  taken 
throughout  the  church.  The  good  effects  of  this  celebration 
endured  for  a  generation. 

B.  The  Organization  of  General  Synod  in  1863.  The  Eastern 
and  the  Ohio  Synods  had  been  constantly  drawing  nearer  to- 
gether. After  1842,  fraternal  delegates  were  interchanged,  the 
statistics  of  each  synod  appeared  in  the  minutes  of  the  other, 
and  triennial  (delegate)  conventions  were  held.  Finally  the 
question  of  the  union  of  the  two  synods  by  the  organization  of 
a  General  Synod  was  approved  by  two-thirds  of  the  Classes  and 
the  General  Synod  was  organized  in  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  November 
18,  1863.  Boards  of  "Orphans'  Homes,"  of  "Foreign  Missions," 
and  of  "Home  Missions"  were  appointed.  Steps  were  also  taken 
to  drop  the  word  "German"  from  the  official  title  of  the  church 
and  to  adopt  the  name  "The  Reformed  Church  in  the  United 
States." 

C.  Early  Home  Missionary  Activities.  This  period  was 
marked  by  a  rapid  expansion  of  the  church,  especially  westward. 
A  large  immigration,  which  included  many  Germans,  was  pour- 
ing into  Ohio,  Indiana  and  Illinois;  but  there  was  a  dearth  of 
both  English  and  German  ministers.  To  supply  this  need,  a 
college  and  theological  seminary  was  founded  in  Tiffin,  Ohio, 
in  1850.  This  seminary  had  graduated  353  ministers  up  to 
the  time  of  its  union  with  the  Ursinus  School  of  Theology  in 
1907.  The  united  seminary,  now  called  Central  Theological 
Seminary,    was    removed   to    Dayton,    Ohio,    the    following    year. 

Among  the  Germans,  two  ministers  were  especially  promi- 
nent: Dr.  H.  J.  Ruetenik,  editor  and  teacher,  founder  of  the 
first  Reformed  Church  in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  of  the  Central  Pub- 
lishing House,  of  several  church  periodicals  and  of  Calvin  Col- 


Church  History.  61 

lege,*  and  Dr.  H.  A.  Muelilmeier,  the  "Father  of  the  Reformed 
Church  in  Wisconsin"  and  founder  of  the  Mission  House.  This 
institution,  located  near  Franklin,  Wis.,  was  founded  to  supply 
the  Germans  of  the  West  and  Northwest  with'  ministers  of  the 
Gospel.  Doctors  H.  A.  Muehlmeier  and  J.  J.  Bossard,  neighbor- 
ing pastors,  were  the  first  teachers.  They  served  at  the  begin- 
ning without  salary,  and  in  addition  with  the  help  of  their 
congregations,  supplied  the  needs  of  the  students.  Since  1860, 
when  this  German  Theological  Seminary  was  founded,  a  total 
of  316  ministers  has  been  educated,  of  which  205  are  now  in 
the  active  service  of  the  Reformed  Church. 

At  first  all  the  German  congregations  belonged  to  synods 
prevailingly  English.  In  order  to  facilitate  the  work  among  the 
Germans,  German  Synods  were  organized  as  the  necessity  arose. 
The  German  Synod  of  the  Northwest  was  organized  in  1867; 
the  German  Synod  of  the  East  in  1875;  the  Central  Synod  in 
1881;  the  Synod  of  the  Southwest  in  1914.  These  German 
Synods  are  distinguished  for  their  loyalty  to  the  Heidelberg 
Catechism,  and  their  emphasis  upon  biblical  and  catechetical 
instruction. 

Three  additional  English  Synods  were  also  organized,  Pitts- 
burgh Synod  in  1870;  Potomac  Synod  in  1873;  the  Synod  of  the 
Interior,  the  youngest  of  the  Synods,  in  1887.  This  Synod  com- 
prises the  English  congregations  of  Illinois,  Iowa,  Nebraska, 
Kansas  and  Colorado. 

Third  Era.     Progress  Through  Co-operatiox. 
1878-1915. 

When  the  controversies  of  thirty-five  years  had  been  settled, 
the  Reformed  Church  forged  ahead  with  rapid  strides.  A  mag- 
nificent spirit  of  co-operation  sprang  into  life,  making  the  era 
since  1878  a  period  of  unprecedented  development,  during  which 
the  church  has  increased  from  710  ministers  and  147,788  members 
to  1,209  ministers  and  312,501  members. 

*  Calvin  College  was  a  co-educatioual  Gerinaii-English  instittition 
located  at  Cleveland,  Ohio.  Dr.  H.  J.  Ruetenik  was  the  fonnrler  ;iiid 
acted  as  president  and  teacher  during  most  of  its  history.  Among  its 
graduates  are  found  some  of  the  most  prominent  ministers  and  educa- 
tors in  the  Reformed  Church  today.  Lack  of  funds  forced  the  institu- 
tion to  close  some  years  ago. 


62  Outline  Studies  on  the  Church. 

The  main  features  only  of  this  development  can  be  traced. 

A.  Foreign  Missionary  Workc.  After  withdrawing  from  the 
American  Board,  for  twelve  years  very  little  was  done  for  the 
Foreign  work.  Finally  the  Board  of  Foreign  :\Iissions  chose 
Japan  as  a  field  for  work  and  sent  out  Rev.  A.  D.  Gring  as  first 
missionary  in  1879.  He  began  work  in  Tokio.  Several  years 
later  Rev.  J.  P.  Moore,  and  Rev.  W.  E.  Hoy  were  sent  out,  and 
the  Sendai  field  was  opened.  At  present,  the  principal  centers 
of  work  are  at  Sendai,  Tokio,  Fukushima  and  Yamagata. 

At  Sendai  are  located  the  North  Japan  College  for  boys,  the 
Theological  Seminary  for  educating  pastors  and  evangelists,  the 
Girls'  School,  and  the  Industrial  Home  which  affords  students 
opportunities  to  partly  earn  their  own  way.  The  property  is 
valued  at  $189,000.  The  present  working  force  consists  of  twenty 
American  missionaries  and  ninety-seven  native  workers. 
Thirty-seven  churches  have  been  organized,  and  at  forty-three 
other  points  regular  services  are  maintained.  The  total  con- 
verts number  thousands,  of  which  3,000  are  now  enrolled  as 
active  members  in  the  various  churches. 

In  1899,  a  mission  was  also  opened  in  China.  Rev.  W.  E. 
Hoy  was  transferred  from  the  Japan  Mission  to  China,  and 
began  work  at  Yochow  City  in  the  province  of  Hunan,  central 
China.  A  second  station  was  opened  at  Shenchow.  At  each 
place  there  is  a  Boys'   School,  a  Girls'  School  and  a  Hospital. 

Seventeen  American  missionaries  and  twenty-eight  native 
helpers  carry  on  the  work.  Three  congregations  have  been 
organized,  and  nine  preaching  places  are  maintained.  The  work 
in  China  has  been  fraught  with  many  difficulties  and  disturb- 
ances, nevertheless,  some  hundreds  of  converts  have  been  won, 
and  125  are  now  enrolled.     The  property  is  valued  at  $94,000. 

The  active  co-operation  of  all  sections  of  the  church  in  the 
foreign  work  has  been  largely  instrumental  in  unifying  our 
denomination. 

B.  Home  Missionary  Work.  The  Eastern  Synod  and  the 
Ohio  Synod  during  the  time  of  their  separation  carried  on  the 
Home  work  under  the  supervision  of  separate  boards.  When 
the  General  Synod  was  organized,  the  two  boards  were  consoli- 
dated, but  during  the  liturgical  controversies  several  synods 
again    created    their    own    boards.     When    the    German    Synods 


Church  History.  63 

were  organized,  these  also  elected  separate  boards.  Gradually 
all  the  English  work  has  been  consolidated  and  is  now  under 
the  Board  of  General  Synod. 

The  German  work,  though  still  conducted  by  two  German 
Boards,  in  the  three  western  German  synods,  is  closely  affiliated 
with  General  Synod's  board.  The  General  Board  partly  sup- 
ports the  German  work,  and  the  German  Boards  regularly  report 
their  work  and  statistics  to  the  former.  One  hundred  and  fifty- 
three  missions  are  now  under  the  care  of  the  General  Board 
and  eighty-two  under  the  German  Boards. 

A  Harbor  Missionary  is  stationed  at  Ellis  Island,  New  York, 
to  give  aid  and  comfort  to  incoming  foreigners. 

Since  1890,  a  prosperous  work  among  the  Hungarians  has 
been  conducted,  and  a  Hungarian  Classis  has  been  organized. 

The  work  among  the  Bohemians,  while  small  and  very  diffi- 
cult, is  promising. 

Since  1878,  a  mission  has  been  maintained  by  the  Germans 
among  the  Winnebago  Indians,  near  Black  River  Falls,  Wis- 
consin. A  small  congregation  of  native  converts  has  been  or- 
ganized, a  school  is  maintained,  portions  of  the  Bible  have  been 
translated  and  published  in  the  Indian  language,  and  several 
young  Indian  converts  are  now  being  educated  at  the  Mission 
House  and  Heidelberg  University  for  the  work  among  this  tribe. 

C.  Sunday  School  Work.  During  the  first  half  of  the  last 
century,  Sunday  Schools  won  their  way  but  slowly  and  in  the 
face  of  constant  opposition.  In  1835,  the  Eastern  Synod  formed 
a  "Sunday  School  Society,"  and  a  number  of  text-books  in  Ger- 
man and  English  were  published  during  the  following  twenty 
years.  The  first  Sunday  School  Board  of  General  Synod, 
was  created  in  1863.  Beginning  with  1873  Sunday  School  lit- 
erature was  regularly  published  by  the  Publication  Boards.  In 
1887,  the  present  "Sunday  School  Board  of  General  Synod"  was 
called  into  being.  The  development  of  our  Sunday  School  work 
since  then  has  been  amazing.  The  enrollment  of  scholars  has 
doubled,  a  large  and  varied  Sunday  School  literature  has  been 
created,  and  an  extensive  educational  and  missionary  work  is 
being  conducted  under  the  direction  of  a  General  Secretary  and 
an  Educational  Superintendent.  The  present  enrollment  num- 
bers 315,000. 


64  Outline  Studies  ox  the  Church. 

In  1912,  by  order  of  General  Synod,  The  Reformed  Church 
Publication  Board  and  the  Sunday  School  Board  of  General 
Synod  were  consolidated  and  are  now  known  as  the  Publication 
and  Sunday  School  Board  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  the  United 
States.  To  this  Board  is  entrusted  the  Sunday  School  work  of 
the  entire  Reformed  Church. 

D.  Woman's  Missionary  Societies.  The  co-operation  of  the 
women  in  the  missionary  activities  of  the  church  dates  from 
1878,  when  the  first  missionary  society  was  organized  at  Xenia. 
Ohio,  with  twelve  charter  members. 

The  first  classical  society  was  that  of  Illinois  Classis  organ- 
ized in  1883.  General  Synod  in  1887  formally  sanctioned  the 
organization  of  congregational,  classical,  and  synodical  societies 
and  assigned  to  them  as  their  special  work  the  support  of  the 
Sendai  Girls'  School.  A  certain  sentence  in  the  resolution  passed 
by  that  General  Synod  has  proved  prophetic;  namely,  "We  hail 
with  peculiar  joy  the  formation  of  Women's  Missionary  Soci- 
eties in  our  different  congregations,  and  we  recognize  in  this 
the  dawn  of  a  brighter  day  in  our  missionary  work." 

At  the  present  time  the  "Woman's  Missionary  Society  of 
General  Synod"  has  affiliated  with  it  391  woman's  missionary 
and  congregational  missionary  societies,  with  a  total  member- 
ship of  10,728.  Annual  contributions  of  more  than  $20,000  are 
raised  for  the  support  of  the  Girls'  Schools  in  Japan  and  China 
and  the  home  work  of  General  Synod's  Board  and  the  German 
Boards. 

E.  Benevolent  and  Educational  Institutions.  Five  Orphans' 
Homes  are  maintained  by  the  church.  The  three  older,  well- 
equipped  institutions  are  located  at  Womelsdorf,  Pa.,  Greenville, 
Pa.,  and  Ft.  Wayne,  Ind.  Two  other  homes  founded  more  re- 
cently are  at  Crescent,  N.  C,  and  near  Littlestown,  Pa. 

Several  societies  and  boards  are  also  supported  for  the  pur- 
pose of  giving  aid  to  aged  and  disabled  ministers  and  those 
dependent  upon  them.  These  institutions  have  dried  many 
tears  and  poured  healing  balm  upon  sore  hearts. 

The  older  educational  institutions  have  all  increased  in 
equipment,  endowment  and  standards  of  scholarship.  A  dozen 
other  institutions  are  likewise  supported  by  the  church  and 
are  doing  their  part  in  the  general  educational  work.    The  educa- 


Church  History.  65 

tion  of  the  daughters  of  the  church  is  provided  for  by  special 
woman's  colleges  located  at  Allentown,  Pa.,  Frederick,  Md.,  and 
Claremont. 

F.  Missionary  Extension.  During  this  era,  immigration, 
American  as  well  as  foreign,  steadily  poured  into  the  great 
west.  Our  church  has  tried  to  follow  this  tide  with  the  preach- 
ing of  the  Word,  though  with  rather  halting  footsteps.  Ger- 
mans, Swiss  and  German-Russians,  many  of  whom  were  Re- 
formed, settled  in  the  Dakotas,  Iowa,  Nebraska  and  Kansas, 
and  prosperous  classes  are  now  found  in  all  these  states. 

Our  church  long  ago  reached  the  Pacific  coast,  and  Oregon 
Classis  has  become  one  of  the  most  vigorous  and  active  of  all. 
In  1892,  the  immigrants  were  followed  into  Canada;  the  first 
church  was  organized  in  Winnepeg  in  1896;  and  now  there  is 
a  Manitoba  Classis  with  a  thousand  members.  "The  Reformed 
Church  in  the  United  States"  now  numbers  nine  Synods,  sixty- 
one  Classes,  1,209  ministers,  1,759  congregations  and  312,501 
members. 

G.  Conclusion.  The  outstanding  characteristics  of  the  era  in 
which  we  are  now  living  are  co-operation  and  all-around  prog- 
ress. The  old  controversies  have  long  since  disappeared  in  the 
enthusiasm  of  our  common  tasks.  The  expansion  of  the  home 
and  foreign  field,  the  multiplication  of  Sunday  Schools,  the  in- 
crease of  Christian  Endeavor  Societies  and  Brotherhoods  have 
tended  to  amalgamate  all  parties.  Benevolent  and  missionary 
offerings  are  increasing  yearly,  every  branch  of  the  church's 
work  shows  steady  progress  and  denominational  consciousness 
and  loyalty  is  growing. 

Great  movements  have  swept  over  the  church  and  quickened 
every  activity.  The  Laymen's  Missionary  Movement  stimulated 
missionary  interest.  The  Three  Hundred  and  Fiftieth  Anni- 
versary of  the  Heidelberg  Catechism  (1913)  aroused  the  histori- 
cal knowledge  of  the  entire  denomination.  The  Every  Member 
Canvass  Campaign  with  its  watchwords:  education,  evangelism 
and  systematic  giving  resulted  in  the  largest  ingathering  of  new 
members  in  the  history  of  the  church,  and  over  400  congrega- 
tions making  the  canvass.  The  entire  church  is  ready  for  a 
great  forward  movement. 

In   1914  the  Laymen's   Missionary  Movement,  in  the  prosecu- 


66  Outline  Studies  ox  the  Church. 

tion  of  its  work,  made  an  exhaustive  "Survey"  of  the  Reformed 
Church  at  their  own  expense  and  placed  it  at  the  disposal  of 
General  Synod.  This  Survey  gives  exhaustive  information  on 
the  following  points:  (a)  the  condition,  problems  and  needs  of 
our  mission  fields;  (b)  the  geographical  distribution  of  our  con- 
gregations, their  size,  language  and  location  in  city  or  country; 
(c)  the  organization  and  administration  of  our  denominational 
work  by  church  judicatories  and  boards;  (d)  the  material  re- 
sources of  our  denomination,  the  financial  methods  used  and  the 
average  gifts  obtained.  The  information  thus  gathered  is  prov- 
ing to  be  a  great  stimulus  to  the  zeal  and  activity  of  the  church 
in  its  forward  movement. 

The  seal  of  John  Calvin  consisted  of  an  extended  hand  offer- 
ing a  flaming  heart  to  God  and  the  motto:  "To  Thee,  I  offer 
my  heart,  O  Lord,  willingly  and  sincerely."  The  words  and 
the  emblem  well  reveal  the  spirit  of  the  man  to  whom  the  Re- 
formed Church  is  so  largely  indebted.  This  same  spirit  should 
actuate  the  entire  church  today.  It  will  mean  better  co-opera- 
tion, surer  progress  and  greater  victories. 


TEST    QUESTIONS 

1.  What     was     the     Mercersburg     Theology?      Its     underlying 

thought? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  the  liturgical  controversy? 

3.  How  many  liturgies  were  tried  out  by  the  church? 

4.  Why    were    the    "Provisional    Liturgy"    and    the    "Order    of 

Worship"  objected  to  by  its  opponents? 

5.  What  new   educational   institution   was   founded    during   this 

period? 

6.  What  were  the  results  of  the  Tercentenary  Celebration? 

7.  How    was    the    way    prepared    for    the    organization    of    the 

General   Synod? 

8.  What  did  the  first  General  Synod  accomplish? 

9.  What   are   the   names    of   two    prominent   German    ministers 

and  for  what  is  each  one  known? 

10.  Why  was  the  Mission  House  founded?     Under  what  circum- 

stances? 

11.  What  new  Synods  were  founded? 


Church  History.  67 

12.  Which  was  the  last  Synod  to  be  organized? 

13.  When,  where  and  by  whom  was  our  Foreign  Mission  work 

begun? 

14.  What  are  some  of  the  results  obtained? 

15.  How  is  the  Home  missionary  work  supervised? 

16.  How  many  missions  are  now  under  the  care  of  the  boards? 

17.  What  are  the  different  lines  of  home  missionary  work  car- 

ried on? 

18.  What  has  the  Sunday  School  Board  accomplished? 

19.  How  are  the  Women  of  the  church  co-operating  in  the  work? 

20.  What     special     Benevolent     institutions     does     the     church 

support? 

21.  Where  are  the  Colleges  for  the  young  women  of  the  church? 

22.  What  are  the  main  characteristics  of  this  era? 

23.  What  great  movements  have  recently  aroused   the  church? 

SUGGESTED  TOPICS  FOR  FURTHER  INVESTIGATION 

1.  The  Report  of  the  Peace  Commission. 

2.  The  Tercentenary   Celebration. 

3.  The  Story  of  the  General   Synod. 

4.  The  history  of  the  Mission  House. 

5.  All  the  Boards,  Societies  and  Institutions  mentioned  in  this 

lesson  have  published  leaflets  and  pamphlets  giving  much 
valuable  information  about  their  particular  work.  Many 
of  these  are  for  free  distribution.  Address  Fifteenth  and 
Race  streets,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  for  full  information. 


Princeton  Theoloaical ,  Sf™na[>  Li^fff}" 


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